SECOr^iD COPY, 
I6d9. 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Chap. Copyright No.. . 



Shelt_„_„__. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



JAPAN AND ITS 

REGENERATION 



BY THE / 

Rev. OTIS GARY 

MISSIONARY IN JAPAN 



NEW YORK 

STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT 

FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS 

1899 



38125 



Copyright, 1899, by 
STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT 
FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS 



JUN231899 



>^^-^ 






TROA' DIRECTORY 

PRINTING AND BOOKBINDINS COMPANY 

NEW YORK 



PREFATORY NOTE 

This volume is one of a series of text-books primarily 
intended for mission study classes in institutions of higher 
learning, but also likely to be largely used by church and 
young people's mission study circles. This fact will ac- 
count for its condensed style and for some peculiarities of 
typography and paragraphing, which have been suggested 
by five years' experience of the Volunteer Movement's 
Educational Department. 

The subject treated is one of great fascination to every 
student of history, and especially so to those who are 
interested in the progress of the Kingdom of God. The 
reader finds here the story of the most astounding trans- 
formation within a few years that can be found in all 
history, and that, too, in our own generation. While no 
one can claim that Japan's regeneration, which has 
scarcely more than begun, is wholly due to the work 
of Christian Missions, it would be equally untrue to 
overlook the importance of the missionary factor in 
these sweeping changes. The aim of this little volume 
is to exhibit the interworking of the many agencies in 
this Oriental renaissance and their true relation one to 
another, as well as to clearly depict the material, social, 
and religious environment of the Japanese missionary. 

The basis of this text-book is the admirable volume 
entitled ''Japan and the Japan Mission," which is pub- 
lished by the Church Missionary Society of Londom The 
editor acknowledges most gratefully the kindness of the 
officers of that Society, who have allowed him to use freely 



IV PREFATORY NOTE 

such portions of their book as he chose. While some 
pages have been transcribed with httle if any change, 
more than half the present volume is wholly new. 

As will be seen, the treatment is broad and catholic and 
the attempt has been made to do equal justice to all leading 
elements that have entered into Japan's recent wonderful 
progress. Inasmuch as more than forty Protestant mis- 
sionary agencies are represented in the Empire, it was 
manifestly impossible to even summarize the work of 
each. As was done, however, in the case of the text-book 
on China, '' Dawn on the Hills of T'ang," published in 
1898, so it is hoped that missionary boards will issue for 
use with this text-book special sketches of the work of 
their own churches in the Island Empire. Such sketches 
will greatly increase the value of the comprehensive sum- 
mary found in the present volume. 

New York, June i, i8pQ, 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 



I. The Land of the Rising Sun, i 

II. The People of Japan, 19 

III. Japan in Past Times, -35 

IV. Religions of Japan, 40 

V. Jesuit Missions 51 

«- VI. The Locking and the Unlocking, . . . .58 

VII. The Revolution, 63 

VIII. New Japan, 67 

^ IX. Modern Missions, 75 

- X. Methods of Work, 99 

XI. Present Conditions and Opportunities, . . .113 

The Final Outcome, 124 

Appendix A— Formosa, 125 

Appendix B — A Select Bibliography, . . . .127 

Appendix C — Statistics of Christian and Mission- 
ary Work in Japan for the Year 1898, . . 130 

Analytical Index, 132 



JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 



The Land of the Rising Sun 

1. The Name. — The Japanese call their country Dai 
Nippon. Dai signifies " Great " ; while Nippon, or Nihon, 
as it is sometimes pronounced, means " Sun-Origin/' 
The latter part of the title was probably first used by the 
Chinese, since it was from the Japanese Islands lying to 
the east of their empire that the sun came to them. The 
Chinese pronunciation of the characters employed in writ- 
ing the name is Jih-pen, or Ji-puan. From this came the 
name Zipangu by which Marco Polo introduced the coun- 
try to the knowledge of Europeans, and other modifica- 
tions of the sounds have given us in English the word 
Japan. 

II. Situation. — i. The Japanese Empire consists of a 
chain of islands stretching along the northeast coast of 
Asia. Formerly it claimed the southern part of Sagha- 
lien ; but this was ceded in 1875 to Russia, and the Kurile 
Islands accepted in exchange. The Bonin and Loochoo 
Islands are now recognized as belonging to Japan. As 
a result Of the war with China its domain was increased 
in 1895 by the addition of Formosa ; but the present vol- 
ume does not deal with this new possession. (See, how- 
ever, Appendix A.) 

2. The most southern of the Loochoo Islands is in 24° 
north latitude, while the Kuriles extend nearly to 51°. 
The extremes thus correspond very nearly with the south- 
ern part of the Persian Gulf and Southampton, England ; 
or with Key West and the northern part of Newfound- 
land. The range of longitude — 124° to 157° east of 



2 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

Greenwich — may be compared with that from Boston to 
Denver. 

3. The distance between the largest island and Korea 
is about one hundred miles ; but the island of Tsushima, 
which belongs to Japan, is only twenty-five miles from 
the continent of Asia. 

III. Area. — i. The Japanese Islands have an area of 
about 146,500 square miles. This is somewhat more than 
the area of Great Britain and Ireland (121,000 square 
miles), two and one-fifth times that of New England (66,- 
500 square miles), and about equal to that of the two 
Dakotas (149,000 square miles). 

2. There are four large islands and more than two 
thousand smaller ones. The relative size of the former 
may be tabulated as follows : 

2 Shikokus = I Kyushu. 

2 Kyushus = I Yezo. 

3 Yezos = I Hondo. 

3. The name Hondo, though not in common use, is the 
proper one for the largest island, which on many of our 
maps is designated as '' Nihon " or " Niphon," the name 
of the whole empire being thus incorrectly applied to one 
island. 

IV. Physical Features. — i. Though there are a few 
plains, the country as a whole may be considered as a mass 
of mountains. These sometimes plunge abruptly into the 
sea ; but in most places the shore is fringed by a strip of 
arable land. This broadens out near the mouths of the 
rivers, which bring down great quantities of soil from the 
hills. The more lofty mountains are from four thousand 
to nine thousand feet high. 

Mt. Fuji, a beautiful truncated cone towering in soli- 
tary grandeur far above all other mountains in its vicin- 
ity, rises to an elevation of 12,360 feet above the level of 
the sea. It is no wonder that the Japanese love Fuji, and 
that even foreigners have called it " the peerless moun- 
tain." Its unique form has inspired the artists of Japan. 
It is frequently the central object in the background of 
ideal pictures. It is painted on the fan that the Japanese 
uses, on the screens that divide his rooms, on the bowl 
from which he eats his rice, and at the bottom of the 
delicate china cup from which he sips his tea; it is dyed 



THE LAND OF THE kISING SUM 3 

upon the cotton kerchief that the laborer knots about his 
brow, and is woven into the texture of the silken fabrics 
that are worn by the wealthy. 

Most of the mountains are of volcanic origin. Some 
volcanoes are still active. De Vries Island, lying near 
the entrance to the Bay of Yedo, is constantly wreathed 
with smoke, as is also the peak of Mt. Asama, northwest 
of Tokyo. Mt. Aso, in Kyushu, is said to have the lar- 
gest crater in the world. The last eruption of Mt. Fuji 
was in 1708; and though snow may at all seasons be 
found upon its summit, there are places where the ground 
is so hot that eggs may be cooked. In 1888 Bandai San, 
which had been quiet for more than a thousand years, 
suddenly broke forth in an eruption that blew off one side 
of the mountain and covered a large section of the sur- 
rounding country with stones, mud, and ashes. Several 
villages were destroyed and 461 persons lost their lives. 

2. Most of the rivers are necessarily short, since there 
is but little distance between the mountains and the sea. 
In a dry season there will often be little more than a 
dry bed of sand and stones where, after a few hours of 
rain, a wide and tumultuous torrent blocks the way of the 
traveller. The bridging of these streams forms one of the 
most difficult problems connected with the construction of 
railroads. Mountains may be pierced by tunnels that, if 
well constructed, will be as enduring as the hills them-- 
selves ; but a great flood tears away, as though they were 
but children's toys, costly bridges that it has taken months 
to construct. 

' On the lower courses of the rivers artificial embank- 
ments have been built to keep back the water from rice- 
fields, which in many cases are even lower than the beds 
of the rivers. When heavy rains swell the streams these 
banks may give way, so that the water pours out upon 
the surrounding country, destroying life and property. 
There is seldom a year when one or more sections of the 
country are not visited by disastrous floods. 

3. The lakes, which are said to be more than two hun- 
dred in number, are for the most part small ; but many of 
them, standing in silent grandeur among the mountains — 
like the Hakone Lake near the celebrated Hakone Pass, 
west of Tokyo — or nestling in luxuriant beauty amidst the 



4 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

foliage of surrounding hills — like Chuzenji, several miles 
above Nikko — ^^are extremely pretty. 

The largest sheet of fresh water is Lake Biwa, a few 
miles east of Kyoto. It is fifty miles long, and twenty 
miles wide at. its widest point. This lake is also subject 
to floods that may raise the water nine or ten feet, sub- 
merging the fields and villages upon its shores. The out- 
let is so narrow that after a great flood the lake is two 
or three months in regaining its ordinary level. 

4. The coast-line of Japan is indented by many bays 
that afford good harbors; though the western coast of 
the main island is somewhat deficient in havens adapted 
to large vessels. The main islands are separated from 
one another by narrow straits. The Inland Sea, separat- 
ing Hondo from Shikoku and Kyushu, furnishes a con- 
venient highway for commerce and is justly celebrated 
for its fine scenery. Indeed, mountains, rivers, lakes, and 
seas unite in making Japan a country of unusual beauty. 

V. Climate. — i. Temperature. — The cHmate of Japan 
is mainly governed by the monsoons. The southwest 
monsoon, which blows from May to August and is ac- 
companied by heavy rains, produces a hot and damp sum- 
mer; and the northeast monsoon, which lasts from 
October to February, makes the winter cold; but the 
extremes are not so great as are experienced on the neigh- 
boring continent. In winter, changes of temperature are 
great and sudden, and severe night frosts are common 
after warm and sunny days. The climate varies very 
considerably in different parts of the country, owing to 
the extent of latitude covered and the influence of ocean 
currents. At Sapporo, in Yezo, the average temperature 
for the whole year is less than 46° F. ; at Tokyo it is 
57° F. ; and at Nagasaki it is nearly 62° F. In general, 
it may be said that the average temperature of the coasts 
bordering on the Pacific Ocean is about the same as that 
of places in the same latitude on the eastern coast of 
America. The Kuroshio, or " Black Stream," exerts an 
influence much like that of the Gulf Stream. The western 
coast of Japan is considerably colder and has heavy falls 
of snow. 

2. Americans living in Japan complain much of damp- 
ness, which makes both the heat and the cold more oppres- 



THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN 5 

sive. Summer seems like a long succession of " dog- 
days," when books and clothing mildew, tools rust, and 
the least exertion induces perspiration. There is much 
rain from the first of April until the middle of September, 
though sometimes there will be a drought in July or Au- 
gust. June is almost sure to bring heavy rains. In most 
parts of Japan the pleasantest season is the autumn, the 
weather from the first of October to the middle of De- 
cember being comparatively tree from rain and wind. 

3. It is said that the proportion of ozoyxe in the air is 
only about one-third of what is found in most western 
lands. It may be for this reason, in part, that most for- 
eigners find the climate debilitating, and that they are 
able to accomplish much less work, especially of a mental 
nature, than in their own land. The young missionary 
who commences to study the language is inclined to make 
light of the advice given by his elders who tell him to 
spend what seems only a small amount of time in study ; 
but he soon finds that both prudence and inclination de- 
mand a shortening of the hours devoted to intellectual 
activity. 

4. High zvinds are common in Japan. The most 
dreaded, especially by those who are on the sea, is that 
known, as the typhoon. This is a circular storm that 
starts in the tropics and sweeps up along the coasts of 
China, the Philippines, and Japan. In the open sea the 
most powerful boats are hardly able to cope with its fury ; 
while those lying in exposed harbors may be thrown far 
up on the shore. On land the wind overthrows houses, 
fences, and trees, while villages along the coast are likely 
to be inundated. The salt spray driven by the wind some- 
times withers the foliage of trees growing a mile from 
the shore. 

5. The dampness and changeableness of the climate 
cannot fail to affect the health of residents. Lung dis- 
eases, dysentery, and rheumatism abound. The climate 
seems favorable to children .of European parentage, and 
it is not necessary, as in India, to send them away at an 
early age. Most adults from western lands find the cli- 
mate trying to their health. For some unknown reason 
persons having a tendency to nervous diseases are almost 
sure to suffer in Japan, nervous prostration and mental 
disorders being of frequent occurrence among foreigners. 



6 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

VI. Seismic Disturbances — Japan is a land subject 
to terrible disasters of various kinds. The ruin wrought 
by floods, volcanic eruptions, and typhoons has already 
been described. Still more to be dreaded are the earth- 
quakes, which without a moment's warning destroy whole 
cities and kill thousands of people. In 1855 Yedo was 
thus overthrown; and in October, 1891, the earthquake 
that destroyed Ogaki, Gifu, and many villages, killed or 
wounded 22,000 persons, besides leaving over a million 
homeless. It was probably a seismic movement occurring 
in mid-ocean that in June, 1896, set in motion a high wave 
which swept along the northern coast of Hondo, killing 
30,000 people. 

VII. Productions. — i. Minerals. — Japan has consider- 
able mineral wealth. Gold and silver are found. In the 
sixteenth century the Portuguese and Dutch exported 
considerable quantities of these metals; and much was 
also sent out of the country when trade with western lands 
was renewed during the present century. Copper and 
antimony have now become important articles of export. 
Though there is some iron, a sufficient quantity for mod- 
ern needs has not yet been found near supplies of fuel 
for smelting it. Upon the western coast of Hondo there 
is petroleum; but not much of it is refined, as the mar- 
kets are so cheaply supplied with oil from America and 
Russia. 

2. Agricultural Wealth. — The true wealth of Japan 
consists chiefly in its agricultural resources, even though, 
owing to the mountainous nature of the country, only 
about one-eighth of the land is under cultivation. The 
soil is fertile, and in most places yields two crops a year. 

The culture of rice has led to a careful system of irriga- 
tion. So soon as the drainage of a valley produces a little 
runlet of water, the farmers commence to build up walls 
of stone and earth so as to make small plats of level 
ground which can be flowed with water. One terrace fol- 
lows another in a series of steps that lead down to the 
plain. If the land continues to have sufficient slope, the 
same gradation extends to the seashore, each terrace being 
a few inches lower than the preceding. Artificial canals 
bring water from the rivers or from reservoirs constructed 
among the hills. On some of the plains water is raised 



THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN 7 

from wells by means of well-sweeps almost exactly like 
those formerly used with the old oaken buckets of western 
lands. 

Through the winter and spring the ground is usually 
occupied by wheat, barley, rape, beans, radishes, and other 
such crops. When these have ripened they are quickly 
harvested, the ground is ploughed, flowed over with wa- 
ter, and then harrowed so as to convert the soil into a 
mass of muddy ooze intended fgr rice culture. Compa- 
nies of men and women wade through the fields, trans- 
planting the young rice-plants which have been growing 
in little plots of ground where the grain was thickly sown 
several weeks before. The plains that were recently 
brown with ripening wheat now form a vast shallow lake 
divided by narrow embankments that separate one field 
from another, the tender plants of transplanted rice giving 
a slightly greenish tint to the landscape. During the sum- 
mer and until the rice is nearly ripe the fields must be 
supplied with water. 

In seasons of drought the peasants of different villages 
often have bitter quarrels and sometimes pitched battles 
in trying to decide who has the best right to draw supplies 
of water from rivers and reservoirs. Recourse is often 
had to prayers and incantations in order to produce rain. 
The stone images of Buddhist saints placed beside the 
road are sometimes tied up with straw-rope, the promise 
being made that they shall be released so soon as they 
send refreshing showers. Sometimes the farmers throw 
a stone image into a pond, where it must lie until ready 
to grant the request for rain, when it is dragged forth, 
replaced upon its pedestal, and worshipped as before. 

Millet, tobacco, radishes, melons, sweet potatoes, tur- 
nips, onions, and other vegetables are extensively culti- 
vated. 

Silk and tea are the chief articles of export to western 
lands. The former is now produced in most sections of 
the country that are not too cold for the industry. The 
care of the worms, the reeling of the thread, and the 
weaving of fabrics furnish employment for many men, 
women, and children. The annual export of silk amounts 
to about $30,000,000. Forty million pounds of tea are 
exported, most of it being sent to America, as Japanese 
tea has never gained popularity in Europe, 



8 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

The principal fruits of Japan are excellent oranges, 
apricots, loquats, persimmons, figs, and plums; passable 
grapes, poor peaches, and a coarse pear that is more es^ 
teemed by Japanese than by foreigners. Good apples are 
produced in the north. 

3. Trees and Flowers, — The country is well supplied 
with timber. Pines, firs, and giant cryptomerias cover 
many of the mountains with their evergreen foliage, or 
shade the highways along which they have been planted. 
Oak and other hard-wood trees are valuable for building ; 
the trees that furnish camphor and vegetable wax add 
much to the national wealth; while the delicate foliage 
of the maple, green in summer and brilliantly tinted in 
autumn, adds to the beauty of the landscape. 

The wild camellia is a tall tree that in spring bears a pro- 
fusion of large, single iloivers. More highly appreciated 
by the Japanese are the cherry-trees that in spring beau- 
tify the mountains and parks with their pure blossoms. 
" Among flowers, the cherry ; among men, the warrior," 
is an old saying which shows what the Japanese most 
esteemed in blossoms and in men. Dwarf varieties of the 
cherry bear large flowers of various hues; but the fruit 
of these, as of the wild trees, is worthless. The Japanese 
preserve cherry blossoms in salt; and cherry-tea, made 
by placing one or two of these in a tea-cup of warm water, 
is sometimes presented to an honored guest. The plum 
blossom is much prized for its simple beauty, its perfume, 
and because it blooms so early while the branches are still 
covered with snow. The moats of old castles are often 
used for the cultivation of the lotus, whose roots and 
seeds are used for food, and whose pink or white blossoms 
delight the eye. The use of the flower in Buddhistic sym- 
bolism comes from the fact that it rises in such sweet 
purity from the foul mud that surrounds it. The chrys- 
anthemum, wistaria, azalea, peony, and iris are some of 
the other plants whose blossoms are most prized. 

In speaking of plants it will not do to omit the bamboo, 
though there may be some hesitation in knowing where 
it should be classed. It might be reckoned among the 
edible vegetables, since the young shoots are an impor- 
tant article of food ; it might be included among useful 
timbers, since it is so much used in building and for 



THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN 9 

making various utensils ; but in reality it is a grass. The 
shoot, as it springs from the ground, has nearly the diam- 
eter of the full-grown plant; pushing rapidly through 
the air, it attains its full height in a few weeks; and, 
though its fibres grow more firm, there is afterward no 
perceptible increase in size. 

4. Animals. — The deer, bear, wild boar, monkey, hare, 
badger, and fox are found in Japan. Until recent years, 
deer were so plentiful in even the thickly populated prov- 
inces that long earthen walls, which may still be seen, 
were built on the edges of forests in order to keep them 
out of the fields. 

The fox is regarded with superstitious fear ; partly be- 
cause it is considered the messenger of one of the gods, 
and still more because it is supposed to bewitch people. 
Many persons are thought to be victims of fox-possession. 
They bark like a fox, jump about, and move their bodies 
in a curious way. The phenomenon is evidently a form 
of nervous disease whose manifestations are governed by 
the superstitions prevailing among the people. Certain 
temples are frequented by possessed persons who repeat 
Buddhist formulas and perform various rites in the hope 
of driving the fox from them. It is said that there are 
no foxes in Shikoku, and that therefore no cases of fox- 
possession occur in that island. Badger-possession, how- 
ever, takes its place. 

Domestic animals include horses, oxen, dogs, and cats. 
Horses are used chiefly as pack-animals. In Yezo and in 
some mountainous regions they are used for riding. In 
ancient as in modern times they were employed for mili- 
tary purposes. Carriages drawn by horses are not com- 
mon. Oxen are used for ploughing and other work upon 
the farm. Until recently, milk has not been an article of 
diet ; and it is still regarded as a food for invalids rather 
than for those in health. The use of meat, though for- 
merly prevented by Buddhistic ideas, is becoming com- 
mon. It is said that in old times venison and other meat 
was sometimes sold under the name of " mountain whale," 
since only the strictest Buddhists refused to eat fish, and 
the whale was considered a fish. 

5. Birds. — Among the birds of Japan are herons, 
cranes, storks, ducks, geese, bitterns, hawks, crows, 



lO JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

pheasants, and pigeons, besides innumerable sparrows 
and a variety of other small birds. It is often said that 
the birds of Japan have no song; but this is not quite 
true. Though the cawing of the crows and the shrieks 
of the bitterns cannot be called musical, the same can 
hardly be said of the cooing of the wood-pigeons, the 
plaintive notes of the nightingale, and the cheerful song 
of the sky-lark. 

6. Marine Products. — The seas surrounding Japan fur- 
nish large quantities of excellent fish. Seals are taken 
among the northern islands. In the capture of whales 
nets made of coarse rope are used. After the fishermen 
have managed to entangle the whale in them so that it 
cannot shake them off, they act as a drag upon its move- 
ments, thus enabling the men to despatch it with their 
harpoons. Shell-fish of various kinds are much used for 
food. Large quantities of seaweed are dried, to be eaten 
by the Japanese or exported to China. 

7. Insects. — Insects, with the exception of those pro- 
ducing silk, are hardly to be considered among the useful 
products of Japan, unless on the principle that all created 
things must serve some useful purpose. Some of them, 
indeed, are a delight to the eye. Moths, butterflies, and 
dragon-flies are numerous and beautiful. In the evening 
the lowlands sparkle with flashing fire-flies. The Jap- 
anese capture these, sometimes carrying them about in 
bags made of thin paper through which their rays shine, 
sometimes enclosing hundreds in a cage to beautify a 
garden or a room. 

Other insects, however, not only fail to furnish enjoy- 
ment, but are a source of discomfort. The traveller in 
Yezo is tormented by the sharp bites of a large gad-fly, 
against whose attacks ordinary clothing offers slight pro- 
tection. Elsewhere a tiny gnat infests wooded districts. 
Clouds of mosquitoes make the use of nets a necessity at 
night ; but no nets are a protection against the ubiquitous 
flea, which keeps nervous people awake at night, and by 
day is a great annoyance, especially if its victim is at a 
meeting where he must keep quiet, or in company where 
propriety prevents any attempt to get rid of the crawling, 
jumping, biting torment. 

VIII. Population.— In 1895 Japan — exclusive of For- 



THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN II 

mosa — had 42,270,620 people. Of these, 3,518 were no- 
bles, 1,617,686 belonged to the gentry — formerly the 
samurai, or military class — and the remainder to the com- 
mon people. 

IX. Important Cities. — i. Kyoto, the once sacred cap- 
ital, where the Emperors resided for upward of a thou- 
sand years — from a.d. 794 to 1868 — is by far the most 
interesting city of Japan. It is sometimes called Saikyo, 
** Western Capital," in contradistinction to Tokyo, the 
'' Eastern Capital." In early European works on Japan 
it is often called Miaco (Miyako), which is a Japanese 
word denoting the capital city. Except on the south, the 
plain in which it stands is encircled by mountains. On 
its eastern side — parallel to the River Kamo, which flows 
through and divides the city — a range of hills several 
hundred feet high adds much to the beauty of the situa- 
tion. The Kamo is spanned by several long bridges. It 
is, however, little more than a dry, shingly bed, except 
when swollen by heavy rains. The river-bed is a marked 
feature of the city. It is utilized for bleaching cloth, long 
strips of which may be seen spread on it any fine day. 
In the summer evenings some portions of it are alive with 
multitudes of citizens, their families and friends, who 
occupy booths and '* cooling stages," sipping tea or sake, 
eating fruit and sweetmeats, smoking, chatting, and oth- 
erwise amusing themselves. The city is well built, and 
the streets are clean. 

The history of Japan for a thousand years centres about 
Kyoto; but its political importance was lost when the 
capital was removed, in 1868, to Tokyo. Most of the 
residences formerly occupied by nobles and court officers 
were demolished. The Imperial Palace, however, still 
remains, and is occupied by the Emperor when he visits 
the city. In recent years the establishment of several 
manufactories, and an increased demand for the silks, 
embroideries, porcelain, and other artistic productions for 
which the city is famous have helped to restore its pros- 
perity. The construction of a canal which has been 
brought by tunnels through the mountains from Lake 
Biwa, about seven miles distant, has facilitated traffic with 
the populous region lying about the lake, and also fur- 
nished water-power, which, in the form of electricity, is 



12 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

distributed through the city. The population: is now 
about 330,000. The city has several educational institu- 
tions, among them being the new University, lately estab- 
lished by the government, and the Doshisha Schools 
founded by Dr. Joseph Neesima and the American Board. 

Kyoto has for centuries been the centre of the nation's 
religious life. Both Buddhist and Shinto temples are nu- 
merous. The magnificent new temple of the Shin sect 
of Buddhists is a conspicuous object in the city. In the 
suburbs and all along the hills which surround Kyoto are 
many temples. Their grounds, especially those which in- 
clude groves on the hillsides, are both extensive and beau- 
tiful. Some are like parks, some are laid out as gardens 
— admirable specimens of Japanese landscape gardening 
— and in all of them the people, who are great lovers of 
nature, find abundant pleasure and delight. 

2. Tokyo. — This city, formerly called Yedo, is compara- 
tively modern. Until the beginning of the seventeenth 
century it was a place of no importance. Then it was 
that leyasu, who had just become the Shogun or military 
governor of Japan, laid the foundation of the city's great- 
ness by building his castle and establishing his govern- 
ment there. After the Shogunate was abolished by the 
Restoration of 1868, the name of Yedo was changed to 
Tokyo, and it became the seat of the Imperial govern- 
ment. It has now a population of 1,269,000. 

The city stands at the head of the Bay of Yedo and at 
the mouth of the Sumida River. Originally built as a 
military stronghold, its principal feature was the Sho- 
gun's castle, whose walls and moats still remain, while its 
grounds are occupied by the new Imperial Palace, parks, 
and public buildings. The moats and other canals are 
connected and communicate either with the Sumida River 
or the bay. It is over one of these canals, which crosses 
the main street of the city, that the famous Bridge of 
Japan — Nihon Bashi — is built, from which all distances 
in the empire are measured. The bridge, '' of cedarwood, 
with highly ornamental balustrades," or, as described 
by another, the " humpbacked structure, a crazy mass of 
old firewood," of former days, has given place to a stone 
bridge, almost level, and affording passage for a contin- 
uous /stream of tram-cars, wagonettes, and jinrikisha, 



THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN 1 3 

which were unknown in old Yedo. The city is every 
year becoming more Europeanized. Not only are gov- 
ernment offices, schools, military barracks, and other pub- 
lic buildings erected in European style, but the same is 
increasingly true of business establishments and the dwell- 
ings of wealthy people. 

Tokyo is the great educational centre of Japan, having 
the Imperial University, normal, commercial, and mili- 
tary schools, besides a large number of private institu- 
tions, including many that have been estabHshed by mis- 
sionaries. 

3. Yokohama. — This city is situated on the western 
shore of the Bay of Yedo, eighteen miles from Tokyo. 
Forty years ago it was a small fishing village on the edge 
of a swamp. It is now a large and flourishing town of 
160,000 inhabitants. The treaties with western nations 
provided for the opening of Kanagawa, and the foreign 
ministers made loud complaints when the Japanese Gov- 
ernment set apart this village as the place for foreign 
residence. Business men, however, hastened to take the 
land placed at their disposal, and an increasing commerce 
has built up this large city. 

The European commercial quarter is substantially built, 
and the influence of its buildings is seen in those that have 
in recent years been erected by Japanese merchants. Most 
of the foreigners reside on the Bluff, a range of low hills 
extending from the shore of the bay inland, on which 
there are numerous pleasantly situated villas, with gar- 
dens well screened from the road by evergreen hedges 
and shrubbery. There is a small colony of Chinese resi- 
dents in Yokohama, many of whom are merchants, brok- 
ers, money-changers, and clerks ; others being carpenters, 
painters, tailors, shoemakers, and domestic servants in 
European houses. 

4. Osaka. — This is the second largest city in Japan, 
and stands in the delta of the Yodo River, about two 
miles from the sea and thirty from Kyoto. The river is 
formed in the plain south of Kyoto, by the union of the 
waters of its four principal affluents — one issuing from 
Lake Biwa, another flowing across the Kyoto plain to 
the west of the city, another passing through the city 
itself, and the fourth draining the country to the south 



14 JAP AX AXD ITS REGEXERATION 

and southeast — and thence tiows toward the Gulf of 
Osaka, into which it falls by several channels. Having 
lost a portion of its water above Osaka, it enters the city 
at its northeastern extremity and is thence divided. Its 
several streams, together with the numerous canals cut 
at right angles to each other, completely intersect the city, 
and Osaka has somewhat extravagantly been called the 
" Venice of Japan." These canals are crossed by over 
eleven hundred bridges. Although a bar at the mouth of 
the river prevents the entrance of large vessels, junks and 
small steamers ascend to the lower part of the city, while 
the canals are crowded with cargo boats conveying goods 
to and from the large fireproof storehouses along the 
banks. There are plans for the construction of an arti- 
ficial harbor. 

Osaka, like several other Japanese cities, is now in the 
jnidst of an industrial and social revolution that is the out- 
growth of the introduction of the modern manufacturing 
system. The city is surrounded by a belt of factories 
which turn out a large variety of goods for the home 
trade and for export to China, Korea, and other countries. 
Some of the factories are little more than rough sheds, yet 
even in these an astonishing amount of work is accom- 
plished. On the other hand, the buildings and equip- 
ments of some of the large mills would compare favorably 
with those of manufacturing cities in America. These 
factories attract large numbers of operatives from the 
country districts, and are bringing about some of the 
social changes that have attended the development of 
manufactures in the West. The population of the city 
is nearly half a million ; but in addition to those who are 
registered as permanent residents, the operatives in the 
factories and the multitudes of strangers coming to the 
city for business or pleasure largely increase the number 
of those who at any one time are within its limits : while 
thousands more dwell in the populous suburbs, which are 
separated by no visible line of demarcation from what is 
politically known as the city of Osaka. 

5. Kobe. — This city, about twenty miles distant from 
Osaka, has become nearly as important a port as Yoko- 
hama. In official circles it is often called Hiogo. that 
being the name of the city that by treaties was thrown 



THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN I J 

open to foreign residence. It was found more convenient 
to have the settlement at the Httle fishing village of Kobe ; 
and through the growth of foreign trade this has increased 
in importance until it has absorbed the older city. In 
1895 it contained a population of 161,000. It has an ex- 
cellent harbor, and the ground rises gradually for half 
a mile to the foot of steep mountains. The town presents 
a very attractive appearance as seen from vessels entering 
the harbor. 

6. Nagasaki. — This city is in the island of Kyushu. 
It stands near the head of a lovely bay, which, with its 
rocky coasts and surrounding hills, makes an attractive 
scene, though the town itself is not so pleasant as most 
of the other treaty ports. The region is historically in- 
teresting because of its connection with the persecution 
of the Roman Catholic Christians in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, and also as having been the place where the Dutch 
were allowed to have a trading settlement which for two 
hundred and thirty years after the expulsion of foreigners 
in 1624 was the only point of contact between Japan and 
the western world. 

7. Hakodate. — This port, in the southern part of Yezo, 
is an important commercial centre and is in direct steam 
communication with Yokohama and other ports. The 
town is pleasantly situated on the slope of a hill and the 
shore of a land-locked bay, which forms a deep, commo- 
dious, and safe harbor. 

8. Niigata. — This city is on the west coast of Hondo, 
at the mouth of the Shinano-gawa, the largest river in 
Japan. It is the capital of one of the richest provinces 
in the empire, but suffers from lack of a good harbor. 
The important island of Sado, noted for its gold mines, 
is near Niigata. 

With the exception of Kyoto, the cities thus far men- 
tioned are the so-called " open ports/' or places where 
foreigners belonging to countries having treaties with 
Japan have been permitted to reside. Beyond certain spec- 
ified limits in the vicinity of these ports, they have not 
been allowed to travel, except as they have obtained special 
permission from the Japanese Government; and they 
could not reside elsewhere unless they were employed 
by Japanese under contracts approved by the government. 



l6 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

These restrictions, which have at times been a great ob- 
stacle to travel and to missionary work, are nearly at an 
end, as new treaties permitting foreigners to travel and 
reside in any part of the country become effective in July, 
1899. 

9. Other Cities. — Sapporo, the capital of Yezo, is a 
place of growing importance. It has an agricultural col- 
lege whose graduates are doing much for the develop- 
ment of the island, which is being colonized by immigrants 
from the southern islands. 

Sendai is the commercial, military, educational, and re- 
ligious centre for a large part of northeastern Hondo. 

Nikko is much visited by tourists because of its fine 
scenery and the temples connected with the burial places 
of the Shoguns leyasu and lemitsu. ^ A Japanese proverb 
runs, " Never say kekko (magnificent) until you have 
seen Nikko." 

Nagoya, the fourth largest city of Japan, is an impor- 
tant business and military centre. It is also noted for its 
porcelain factories and for a fine castle. 

In former times the cities where the daimyos, or feudal 
lords, resided and had their castles were the centres of 
the regions in which they were situated. Some of them 
have fallen into decay ; but others of them, owing to their 
favorable location, or to the enterprise of the people in 
introducing manufactures, have retained their importance. 
For the most part, it is these " castle-towns " that have 
presented the best openings for Christian work and have 
been chosen by missionaries for residence. 

X. Means of Communication — i. Steamers ixovc\'^2.x\ 
Francisco, Tacoma, Seattle, and Vancouver sail regularly 
to Yokohama, most of them going on from that port to 
Kobe, Nagasaki, and China. The English, German, 
French, Austrian, and Japanese lines to Europe touch at 
several Asiatic ports on the way. A large number of 
steamers connect the important parts of Japan. Many of 
these boats are now built by the Japanese themselves. 

Some sailing vessels, especially those engaged in carry- 
ing oil, still ply between America and Japan. Much of the' 
trade between the islands is carried on by the old-fash- 
ioned junks, though these are fast giving place to vessels 
of modern style. 



THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN 1 7 

Small, flat-bottomed hoals carry cargoes up and down 
the larger rivers. In descending streams, the traveller 
often finds that these furnish him a pleasant means of 
conveyance. They take him through picturesque scenery, 
and the shooting of rapids is exciting. 

2. The country is being rapidly supplied with railroads. 
The first lines were built by the government, and the ques- 
tion whether it shall purchase those afterward constructed 
by private companies is much discussed. The railways 
are narrow-gauge. Those in Yezo have the American 
style of cars; elsewhere the English coaches are used. 
Fares for the three classes of the latter are equivalent, in 
American money, to about i>2, i, and ^ cent a mile. 
Few of the trains travel more than twenty miles an 
hour. A few short lines of electric roads have been 
constructed, and the abundance of water-power available 
for the production of electricity favors an increased use 
of such roads. 

3. In old times the chief method of travel was by the 
kago, a sort of chair carried on the shoulders of men. It 
is still used in mountainous districts. Foreigners, not 
being made on the jack-knife plan, find it tiresome to ride 
doubled up in the fashion that these vehicles require. 
Many people think that the only comfortable way to ride 
in them is to get out and walk behind. 

In most places they have been replaced by the jinrihisha. 
An American missionary, desiring some conveyance for 
his invalid wife, showed the picture of a baby carriage to 
a Japanese carpenter and had him make something simi- 
lar. The new vehicle was found so convenient that the 
Japanese copied it, and now the jinrikisha (or " man- 
power carriage," as the name signifies) is found in most 
parts of the country and has been introduced into China 
and India. The main roads of Japan are good, and in 
fair weather the traveller may expect to average between 
five and six miles an hour, or somewhat more, if he is 
going but a short distance. The same man will sometimes 
carry a passenger over fifty miles in a day. In Yezo and 
some other places carts and very uncomfortable coaches 
are the vehicles in use. 

4. Japan has a good system of posts. Carriers deliver 
letters not only in large towns, but also in small villages. 



1 8 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

There are very few places that do not have at least one 
mail a day. There is a parcel-post. A postal savings- 
bank pays a good rate of interest. Telegraphs owned by 
the government connect all the large towns, and there is* 
the commencement of a system of telephones. 



II 

The People of Japan 

1. Origin of the Japanese. — i. The difference be- 
tween two types found among the Japanese people has 
been described by Dr. Griffis as follows : " Among the 
upper classes, the fine, long, oval face, with prominent, 
well-chiselled features, deep-sunken eye-sockets, oblique 
eyes, long, drooping eyelids, elevated and arched eye- 
brows, high and narrow forehead, rounded nose, bud- 
like mouth, pointed chin, small hands and feet, contrast 
strikingly with the round, flattened face, less oblique eyes 
almost level with the face, and straight noses, expanded 
and upturned at the roots. The former type prevails 
among the higher classes — the nobility and gentry; the 
latter among the agricultural and laboring classes." 

2. These types probably represent two streams of im- 
migratiom People from Northern Asia may have crossed 
over from Korea or have entered by way of Saghalien, 
which is separated from Siberia by a channel only five 
miles wide that is sometimes left dry by the wind and 
is frozen over in winter. Some students of the problem 
suppose that Southern Japan was peopled by persons who 
came from the Malay Archipelago. They point to the 
fact that the Black Stream sometimes brings to Japan 
shipwrecked sailors who have drifted in their boats from 
the south. It is thought that these southern immigrants 
conquered those who had entered from the north, and 
that in the course of time the races blended so as to form 
the Japanese people. Other writers oppose the theory 
of a Malayan immigration. While recognizing that there 
were two races, they claim that both were Mongolian and 
probably came by way of Korea or China. 

II. The Ainu. — Whatever may be the truth concern- 
ing these two sets of immigrants, they probably found the 

19 



20 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

i&lands already occupied by other people whose origin is 
unknown. These were the Ainu, or x\ino, whom the new- 
comers gradually forced back into Yezo, where they long 
maintained independence and their purity of race. A 
remnant numbering about 17^000 still survives, but they 
are subject to the Japanese. The Ainu *' are the hairiest 
race in the whole world, their luxuriantly thick black 
beards and hairy limbs giving them an appearance which 
contrasts strangely with the smoothness of their Japanese 
lords and masters. They are of a sturdy build, and dis- 
tinguished by a flattening of certain bones of the arm and 
leg — the tibia and humerus — which has been observed no- 
where else except in the remains of some of the cave-men 
of Europe. The women tattoo mustaches on their upper 
lips and geometrical patterns on their Tiands. Both sexes 
are of a mild and amiable disposition, but are terribly 
addicted to drunkenness. They are filthily dirty, the prac- 
tice of bathing being altogether unknown. . . . Their 
religion is a simple nature-worship. The sun, wind, ocean, 
bear, etc., are deified . . . and whittled sticks are 
set up in their honor. The bear, though worshipped, is 
also sacrificed and eaten with solemnities that form the 
most original and picturesque features of Ainu life." 
(Chamberlain, "Things Japanese.") 

III. Possible Relation between the Japanese and the 
American Indians. — The Japanese are thought by some 
to have been the progenitors of the North American In- 
dians and the Mexicans. In some respects the physical 
characteristics are similar, and it is easy to see that the 
Black Stream might have borne shipwrecked people across 
the Pacific. Indeed, it is said that between 1782 and 1876, 
forty-seven Japanese junks are known to have been cast 
upon the American coast. 

IV. Physical Characteristics of the Japanese. — 
The average height of Japanese men is about the same as 
that of European women. The low stature is largely due 
to shortness of the lower limbs, and, when seated, they 
do not seem so diminutive as when standing. They are 
of light weight. With the exception of the professional 
wrestlers, who look like mountains of fat, very few pottl^ 
persons are to be seen. The upper and middle classes 
appear to be physically weak ; but the peasantry have 



THE PEOPLE OF JAPAN 21 

great powers of endurance, even the women carrying 
heavy burdens upon their heads. 

V. Mental Characteristics. — i. The Japanese are 
keenly intelligent. Most of the men and a considerable 
proportion of the women are able to read books written in 
a simple style. Even the peasants are interested to know 
what is going on in the world, their questions and re- 
marks showing much shrewdness and quickness of per- 
ception. 

2. The people are cheerful and good-natured. They take 
life in a light-hearted way. With a smile, or sometimes 
with a laugh, the Japanese will tell of some terrible dis- 
aster or bereavement ; yet one who understands the peo- 
ple knows that a heavy heart often lies beneath the cheer- 
ful exterior, and that a sympathetic word may lead to 
a flood of tears. It is often hard to tell whether the laugh 
that accompanies the narration of bad news comes from 
nervousness or from the person's feeling that he ought 
not to let his own sorrow annoy another. 

3. It is often said that the Japanese are imitative, but 
do not have inventive power. The correctness of this as- 
sertion may be doubted. It is true that Japan in former 
times copied what it received from China, and more re- 
cently it has adopted or imitated what has come from the 
West. Yet the copying has not been servile. If an object 
is placed before a Chinaman and a Japanese with direc- 
tions to make something like it, the former will produce 
what can hardly be distinguished from the model. The 
Japanese, on the other hand, will introduce some ideas of 
Iiis own. If he understands the use of the article, the 
change will probably be an improvement. Where there 
is a chance for variation he does not like to make two 
things alike. Here we see what is at least allied to a 
capacity for invention. Tell a country blacksmith or an 
ordinary mechanic that an instrument is desired for a 
certain use, and if he once grasps the idea he will shov/ 
a surprising ability to make something that will serve the 
desired end. 

4. Japanese often lack steadfastness of purpose. They 
do not like to begin with small things and make them 
grow to something great. New enterprises must be start- 
ed with grand opening exercises and great enthusiasm, 



22 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

only to be abandoned when difficulties arise. The Japa- 
nese are easily discouraged. The phrase *' Shikata ga 
nai," " There is no help for it," is constantly heard as 
a reason for discontinuing effort, or even as an excuse 
for yielding to sin instead of bravely fighting against evil. 
The people are opportunists, allowing their action to be 
governed by what will serve the present purpose rather 
than by great principles. There is little courage in re- 
sisting public opinion. " The spirit of the times is unfa- 
vorable " is given as a sufficient reason for yielding to 
evil or failing to uphold what is known to be right. 

5. The Japanese are changeable. '* There is nothing 
fixed in Japan except change," was the remark of a keen 
observer. It may be questioned, however, whether the 
Japanese are naturally quite so fickle as is generally sup- 
posed. It must be remembered that during the last forty 
years new ideas, theories, sciences, and inventions have 
poured into the country like a flood. It is no wonder that 
a people so anxious to receive the benefits of the new civ- 
ilization have been bewildered, attention being called now 
in one direction and now in another. The new movements 
have been largely in the hands of young men, and have 
lacked the steadying influence that would come from the 
conservatism natural to age; for the older people have 
been disregarded as men hopelessly wedded to the past, 
or they themselves have recognized their inability to take 
a leading part in movements that needed the energy and 
adaptability of youth. When we consider how descend- 
ants of the Roman Catholic Christians, though deprived 
of the outward helps and forms which seem so important 
an element in their religion, retained their faith through 
two and a half centuries ; when we see the steady way 
in which Japanese statesmen have carried out the pro- 
gramme inaugurated at the time of the Restoration of 
1868, we may question whether the Japanese are so fickle 
as has been alleged, and also whether what was said in 
the preceding paragraph does not need to be modified by 
remembrance of many who in the face of great obstacles 
have persisted in carrying out their purposes. 

6. Some one has wittily said that the Japanese are 
" great in little things, and little in great things." Though 
such generalizations are likely to be misleading, the cur- 



THE PEOPLE OF JAPAN 2$ 

rency that this epigram has gained shows that it is not 
wholly devoid of truth. Japanese artists are skilful in 
painting flowers, small birds, insects, and tiny bits of 
scenery; they seldom succeed in their pictures of men, 
large animals, and broad landscapes. Japanese poetry 
consists chiefly of diminutive odes of thirty-one syllables 
that give a mere hint of some poetical thought; nothing 
has been produced that can be compared with the great 
epics, dramas, and heroic poems of Europe. In prose 
literature there is little in which Europeans can find much 
pleasure, except novels and miscellaneous collections of 
anecdotes. While the Japanese are ready and pleasing 
speakers, there have been no great orators. 

7. The Japanese are very appreciative of beauty. Even 
the lower classes take great pleasure in flowers and in 
natural scenery. Ordinary utensils are often decorated 
with simple but pleasing ornaments. Japanese art, which 
has been so enthusiastically welcomed in the West, is the 
outgrowth of an aesthetic taste that is widely diffused 
among the people. 

8. The Japanese are hero-worshippers in both a literal 
and figurative sense. Shrines are erected to the memory 
of great warriors and statesmen. School-books and other 
literature for the young record the deeds of noted men. 
Children whose filial piety found exaggerated methods of 
expression are held up as models for those who come after 
them. One unfortunate result of this, as noted by Mr. 
Yokoi, is that " the quiet, peaceful performance of daily 
duties, small and unheroic, but so necessary for the high- 

,est social welfare, seemed to fall into comparative neglect." 
The same mental qualities that make the Japanese worship 
the heroes of the past make them enthusiastic followers 
of great leaders in the present. " It is difficult," says 
Professor G. T. Ladd, " to secure from natives friendship 
and devotion, or even much steadfast interest, for anyone 
out of whom they cannot make and maintain a hero." 

9. A very valuable study of Japanese characteristics 
is to be found in the article from which the last quotation 
is taken, and which appeared in Scrihner's Magazine for 
January, 1895. Professor Ladd accounts for peculiarities 
and seeming contradictions by saying that the Japanese 
are of the " sentimental ternper anient." The distinguish- 



24 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

ing mark of this temperament is " great susceptibility to 
variety of influences — especially on the side of feeling, 
and independent of clear logical analysis or fixed and 
well-comprehended principles — with a tendency to a will 
that is impulsive and liable to collapse. Such susceptibil- 
ity is likely to be accompanied by unusual difficulty in 
giving due weight to those practical considerations which 
lead to compromises in politics, to steadiness in labor, to 
patience in developing the details of science and philos- 
ophy, and to the establishment of a firm connection be- 
tween the higher life of thought and feeling and the de- 
tails of daily conduct. On the other hand, it is the artistic 
temperament, the temperament which makes one * inter- 
esting,' the * clever ' mind, the temperament which has 
a suggestion of genius at its command.^' 

10. So much has been said by some writers about the 
Japanese being wholly or nearly without the idea of per- 
sonality, that reference should be made to this opinion. 
It can be found elaborated in Mr. Percival Lowell's 
" Soul of the Far East." The editor of the present vol- 
ume cannot accept the view, but an adequate discussion 
of the question would require too much space. Suffice 
it to say that many of the facts adduced in support of the 
opinion are explained by a dull sense of individual respon- 
sibility. This may be due in part to pantheistic ideas dat- 
ing from ancient times, but has been increased by the 
influence of Buddhism, which explains man's present 
deeds by those that preceded them in another state of 
existence, thus blunting the sense of obligation to do right, 
and taking away the sense of guilt for sin. 

11. Comparisons are often made between the Japanese 
and the Chinese. In doing this, Americans are likely to 
be unfair to the latter. It must be remembered that the 
Chinese who come to this country belong, for the most 
part, to the lower classes, while the Japanese — except the 
laborers who come to the Pacific Coast — are nearly all 
students or the most enterprising men of business. The 
Japanese are more progressive, and so quicker to adopt 
western ideas ; the Chinese are slower and exceedingly 
conservative. The European finds the Japanese more 
companionable ; but he is more likely to trust the Chinese. 
The Japanese are brilliant ; the Chinese more profound. 



THE PEOPLE OF JAPAN 2$ 

The former are the French; the latter, the Germans of 
Asia. 

VI. Japanese Standards of Morality — It is difficult 
to write impartially concerning the moral condition of any 
people; and an examination of what different authors 
have said about the Japanese will show that the most di- 
verse opinions have been expressed. Some speak of them 
as though they were models of all that is good, " who have 
nothing to learn from western lands," while others have 
described them as wholly given over to immorality. Per- 
haps it cannot rightly be said that one people is naturally 
superior or inferior to another in morality. If men of dif- 
ferent lands were asked to write down the names of the 
virtues, the lists might not vary much, except that the 
order of the words would show the comparative emphasis 
laid on the virtues specified. Vices vary in outward forms 
more than in heinousness. The evil that most forcibly 
tempts those brought up in one land is replaced by some- 
thing else with those whose early education has been dif- 
ferent. We ought to remember that the besetting sins of 
a foreign people seem worse to us because they are not 
the ones that most tempt us; and that we may fail to 
appreciate another's virtues because they are not the ones 
that we make most prominent. 

I. The Japanese emphasize the importance of loyalty. 
The Imperial family has been considered to be of divine 
origin, and so the devotion with which it was formerly 
regarded partook of a religious nature. Though few 
educated people now consider that the Emperor is more 
than man, the influence of the old idea remains. For 
centuries, indeed, the mass of the people had but little 
thought of the Emperors, and loyalty meant chiefly de- 
votion to one's feudal lord ; but those who were leaders 
in the revolution that overthrew the Shogunate, did away 
with the feudal system, restored the government to the 
Emperor, and have emphasized the idea of loyalty to him 
until it has taken an extreme form, which often finds 
expression in ways that to foreigners seem childish and 
ridiculous. 

It is somewhat difficult to draw the line between loyalty 
and patriotism; and patriotism in the sense of love for 
the whole country is almost a new sentiment among the 



26 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

Japanese ; for, as the feudal lord was the object of loyalty, 
the province which he governed was the " country " of 
his subjects. The revolution of 1868 expanded these nar- 
row views, and readiness to make great sacrifices for Em- 
peror and country has aided national progress and given 
Japan a great advantage over China, where patriotism is 
still comparatively unknown. Unfortunately, these patri- 
otic sentiments, all the stronger because of recent growth, 
have led to an exaggerated nationalism that unduly praises 
whatever is Japanese, dislikes foreigners, and insists that 
everything coming from abroad must be thoroughly Jap- 
anized before it can be accepted by one who loves his 
country. This may be but a temporary phenomenon of 
awakening national consciousness, to be compared with 
what was seen in Russia, as described- by Tourgenieff: 
" Some young people among us have discovered even a 
Russian arithmetic. Two and two do indeed make four 
with us as well as elsewhere, but more pompously it 
would seem. All this is nothing but the stammering of 
men who are just aw^aking." It is sometimes hard to be 
patient with the childish bumptiousness and self-suffi- 
ciency, but better that such offences should come than 
that the nation should not be aroused to its new life. 

2. Filial piety, which is the first principle of Confucian 
ethics, stands next to loyalty in the estimation of the 
Japanese. Perhaps *' fulfilment of duty toward one's fam- 
ily " would more fully express what is inculcated. It is 
hard for occidentals to understand how the family or 
" house " is regarded by the Japanese. It is considered a 
terrible calamity to have a family come to an end ; it is 
incumbent upon every one of the members to uphold its 
honor. Formerly, in obedience to the Confucian maxim, 
" One cannot live under the same heaven with the slayer 
of one's lord or father," violent death must be avenged 
by the nearest relatives. The person who brought dis- 
grace upon his house could be called upon to wipe out 
the stain by suicide. Twenty-five years ago a mother 
called before her a son who had become interested in 
Christianity, placed before him the sword of his dead 
father, and said : *' You are disgracing our family. Prom- 
ise to have nothing more to do with the foreign religion, 
or else slay yourself with your father's sword." " Moth- 



THE PEOPLE OF JAPAN 2^ 

er," he replied, '' I cannot cease to study that which 
seems to me to be true ; neither can I feel that it is right 
for me to take the life that Heaven has given me." 
" Then but one thing remains possible," she said, grasp- 
ing the sword. " I will do what little is in my power 
to preserve the honor of our house," and it was with diffi- 
culty that she was restrained from taking her own life. 

Anxiety to keep the family from extinction has in- 
creased the prevalence of concubinage. Adoption is also 
common, not from motives of charity, but to preserve the 
family name. The person who is adopted or comes into 
a family by marriage — and men often " marry into the 
wife's house " — is supposed to transfer to it his obedience 
and affections. A few years since a young man, who 
had but a week or two before been adopted, nearly lost 
his life at sea. In telling of his experiences, he said the 
one thought that filled his soul was sorrow at the grief 
his new father would feel on account of his death. So 
far as his words went, there was nothing to show that 
he remembered the one who a few days before had been 
his father. Mr. Yokoi says, " The wife obeys her husband 
because he is the head of the household ; the mother [if 
a widow] obeys her son because he is the head of the 
household. The father did the same, if he had resigned 
his place as the head of the household and was Hving in 
retirement." It will thus be seen that filial obedience may 
sometimes be replaced by paternal obedience. 

One unfortunate result of the Japanese view is that 
when poverty overtakes her family a girl is expected to 
be willing to give herself to a life of shame in order to 
provide funds to support her parents. The government 
requires that the girl shall give her consent; but few 
would long resist the command of the parent or elder 
brother, and the transaction practically amounts to her 
sale to the keeper of a brothel. Japanese literature 
abounds with tales of daughters who have shown praise- 
worthy devotion to their parents by voluntarily offering 
themselves, while other stories tell of men who have sold 
their wives in order to get means to help aged parents 
or even impoverished masters. A great difference be- 
tween Japanese ideas of filial piety and our own is that 
the former insist upon obedience for the benefit of the 



28 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

parents or the family, while we desire children to be 
obedient because we believe it will be for their own good. 

3. Propriety in conduct is reckoned among the leading 
virtues. Hence has come much of the courtesy that 
makes so favorable an impression on travellers, who are, 
however, somewhat misled by what appears upon the 
surface. The peasantry are naturally polite. This could 
hardly be the case without the same being to some extent 
true of other classes. Yet the emphasis laid upon pro- 
priety, whose rules are largely determined by the com- 
parative ranks of the persons concerned, has tended to 
make etiquette replace real politeness. The inferior is 
careful " to show due respect to his superior and to the 
one from whom he expects some favor ; but a superior is 
apt to have little regard for those beneath him. He ad- 
dresses them in contemptuous language and treats them 
in a way he would not think of using toward those whom 
he considers his equals. The very words and the termi- 
nations of his verbs show how he regards them. The 
traveller from foreign lands is usually received as a man 
to be ranked among the upper classes, and he is treated 
accordingly. Many tourists see only merchants, hotel- 
keepers, and others who seek their patronage and are 
therefore very low in their bows. Hence more courtesy 
is often attributed to the people than they really possess. 
If the best test of politeness is to be found in the treatment 
accorded to a person of lower rank than one's own, the 
Japanese of the upper classes do not deserve all the praise 
that has been accorded to them. 

4. Truthfulness is not a prominent characteristic of the 
Japanese. Townsend Harris, the first American Minister 
to Japan, may have gone too far when, after several try- 
ing experiences, he pronounced them " the greatest liars 
upon the face of the earth ; " yet it must be confessed 
that, while the Japanese have much to say about sincerity 
as the great duty of one friend to another, they have not 
emphasized the necessity of what we understand by truth- 
fulness. In books for western children and in the stories 
that we tell them, this is one of the first virtues incul- 
cated ; but the juvenile and ethical literature of Japan is 
nearly silent upon the subject. Truth for truth's sake is 
little valued. Few persons seem abashed if caught in 



THE PEOPLE OF JAPAN 29 

falsehood. Buddhist priests, when talking with educated 
people, do not hesitate to say that much of what they 
teach to the masses is only a tissue of pious devices by 
which they seek to influence men too ignorant to under- 
stand the truth. 

5. The inculcation of financial honesty by the ethical 
teachers of Japan has been lessened by the fact that in 
feudal times the military gentry were taught to despise 
money and moneymaking. The merchant was considered 
to belong to the lowest of the recognized classes of so- 
ciety, being inferior to the farmer and the artisan. Since 
tradesmen were despised and hampered by many restric- 
tions, it is not strange that the code of business ethics 
was very lax. Within the last few years business meth- 
ods have been transformed. Many of the gentry and 
some of the nobility are engaging in trade ; but the influ- 
ence of old ideas and customs still remains, and it will be 
long ere a high standard of business morality is estab- 
lished. Foreigners trading in Japan are loud in their 
complaints against the native merchants, who do not de- 
liver goods equal to the sample nor fulfil contracts that 
involve them in any loss. The peasantry is, in the main, 
honest. Domestic servants and other employees are in 
the habit of taking " squeezes " from what passes through 
their hands. They also make arrangements with grocers 
and others for receiving a percentage from all sales. 
If refused, they will complain to their employers of the 
quality of goods furnished, or in other ways will cause 
the patronage to be transferred to some other merchant 
more ready to divide the profits. While charges of brib- 
ery are frequently brought against legislators and others, 
there appears to be but little of the official peculation that 
abounds in many oriental lands. The emphasis laid upon 
loyalty has done much to prevent cheating the govern- 
ment. 

6. Outside of Christian circles not much has been done 
to promote temperance. One of the Buddhist command- 
ments, indeed, forbids the use of intoxicating liquor, and 
writers on ethics have not wholly overlooked the evils of 
intemperance; still, public opinion does not frown upon 
occasional intoxication, and there are few people who 
do not at times drink to excess. Fortunately, however, 



30 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

except on public holidays and religious festivals, there is 
but little drunkenness seen on the streets. Most of the 
drinking takes place in the evening, either at home or 
in *' tea-houses " and other places where companies gather 
for merry-making. The Japanese, when intoxicated, are 
seldom quarrelsome. They sing, dance, and are jolly 
rather than ugly. This may be partly owing to the char- 
acteristics of the people and partly to the qualities of the 
liquor commonly used. This is brewed from rice and 
is called sake. Some observers think that a change in the 
actions of intoxicated people can be seen as new kinds of 
drink are being used. Foreign liquors of various kinds 
have been introduced; but most of them are too costly 
to be purchased by any except the wealthy. Large quan- 
tities of cheap alcohol are therefore imported from Amer- 
ica and Europe. This is mixed with water, saccharine, 
and some flavoring substance. It is thought that these 
artificial drinks produce a more riotous form of intoxica- 
tion, and they are vastly increasing the evils of intem- 
perance. 

Tobacco is not chewed nor used as snuflf, but both men 
and women smoke. Children commence the habit at a 
very early age. Cigarettes imported from America or 
manufactured in the country are taking the place of the 
diminutive Japanese pipes, and their almost universal use 
by young people works great harm. 

7. Chastity is a virtue that public opinion in Japan 
does not demand in men, nor in unmarried women with 
any such insistence as prevails in western lands. Licen- 
tiousness is the vice that has given the country its most 
unsavory reputation. There is no strong public senti- 
ment against it. The government licenses houses of ill- 
fame and puts its seal on the documents by which girls 
are delivered over to a Hfe of shame. Concubinage is 
common among officials and men of wealth. Men and 
even boys are not ashamed to speak of their immoral 
deeds. In mixed companies there is a freedom in con- 
versation and story-telling that helps to lower the moral 
tone of society. Many customs, though not to be judged 
by our standards, tend to decrease modesty of thought, 
word, and deed. 

Earnest Japanese are recognizing the evil reputation 



THE PEOPLE OF JAPAN 3 1 

that their country has gained, and are anxious that it may 
not merit the title, " Land of Licentiousness." The influ- 
ence of foreign opinion has caused the removal from 
public gaze of many things that were common at the 
time of which Professor Chamberlain has written : " Not 
the loosest of European viveurs, not the lewdest grogshop- 
haunting English Jack-ashore but would have blushed at 
the really unimaginable indecency which preceded our 
advent in this country. Why! until we, the Yokohama, 
Tokyo, and other foreign residents, came here and had 
been here long enough for our influence to be generally 
felt, the very sweetmeats were indecent, the very toys of 
the children were indecent, the very temples of religion 
were indecent." 

VII. The Position of Woman. — i. In Japan the po- 
sition of woman is much higher than in other Asiatic 
countries. This is the more creditable to the people be- 
cause Buddhism accords her a very low place, saying 
that her only hope of salvation is through being re-born 
as a man. In the history and literature of Japan women 
have gained great honor. Still, it must be said that from 
a western standpoint the Japanese woman is not to be 
envied. Her lot is summarized in " the three obediences " 
— while unmarried, obedience to her father; when mar- 
ried, obedience to her husband ; when widowed, obedience 
to her son. 

2. *' The Great Learning for Woman," a treatise com- 
posed by the celebrated moralist, Kaibara, gives the ideas 
that have prevailed in Japan. A few extracts from Pro- 
fessor Chamberlain's translation will show their general 
spirit : 

" The only qualities that befit a woman are gentle obe- 
dience, chastity, mercy, and quietness. 

" It is the chief duty of a girl living in the parental 
house to practise filial piety toward her father and mother. 
But after marriage her chief duty is to honor her father- 
in-law and mother-in-law — to honor them beyond her own 
father and mother — to love and reverence them with all 
ardor, and to tend them with every practice of filial piety. 

" A woman has no particular lord. She must look to 
her husband as her lord, and must serve him with all 
worship and reverence, not despising or thinking lightly 
of him. The great life-long duty of woman is obedience. 



32 JAP Ay AND ITS REGENERATION 

" The five worst maladies that afflict the female mind 
are indocility, discontent, slander, jealousy, and silUness. 
Without any doubt, these five maladies infest seven or 
eight out of every ten women, and it is from these that 
arises the inferiority of women to men. A woman should 
cure them by self-inspection and self-reproach. 

" We are told that it was the custom of the ancients, on 
the birth of a female child, to let it lie on the floor for 
the space of three days. Even in this may be seen the 
likening of the man to Heaven and of the woman to 
Earth ; and the custom should teach a woman how neces- 
sary it is for her in everything to yield to her husband 
the first, and to be herself content with the second, place." 

3. The book enumerates the faults that are termed the 
*' Seven Reasons for Divorce." They are~ disobedience to 
parents-in-law, barrenness, lewdness, jealousy, leprosy, 
garrulity, and theft. Though divorce is not so common 
as formerly, there were, in 1894, 114,436 divorces to 361,- 
319 marriages. The marriage customs doubtless have 
much to do with the frequency of divorce, matches being 
usually arranged by a " go-between," who is requested 
by a young man's parents to find a wife for their son. 
There is little opportunity for the young people to become 
acquainted before marriage, and sometimes they do not 
see each other until the wedding-day. It is not strange 
that divorces often follow marriages arranged in such a 
way. Very often incompatibility between the bride and 
her mother-in-law causes separation between a husband 
and wife who are well satisfied with each other. 

4. Western ideas are doing much to make the lot of 
Japanese women easier. They are not shut up so closely 
in their homes, and a larger proportion of them is being 
educated, though outside of Christian schools there are 
but few educational institutions of the higher grades that 
are open to them. A gratifying advance in connection 
with the ordinary public schools is shown by the statistics 
which tell us that whereas, in 1873, only forty per cent, 
of the boys and fifteen per cent, of the girls w^ere in 
school, in 1896 the attendance had risen to seventy-nine 
and forty-eight per cent., respectively. 

VIII. Classes of Society. — i. The people of Japan 
below the nobility were formerly divided into four prin- 



THE PEOPLE OF JAPAI/ 33 

cipal classes : The samurai, or military and literary class 
— the sword and the pen being united as in no other coun- 
try; the farmers and agriculturists; the artisan class; 
the merchants and shop-keepers, who have always been 
regarded as the lowest in social rank in Japan. Below 
those, again, outside the pale of humanity, were the pa- 
riahs of Japan, the eta — generally living in separate vil- 
lages, and following the occupation of skinners, tanners, 
leather-dressers, grave-diggers, etc. — and the hinm, or 
beggars. These were enfranchised in 1871. Since then, 
farmer, artisan, trader, and eta have been on an equal 
footing before the law ; while the distinction between them 
and the shizoku, as the samurai are now called, is little 
more than one of name. Society is now divided into three 
classes : the kwazokii, or nobility ; the shizoku, or gen- 
try; and the heimin, or common people. 

2. At the head of the samurai in feudal times were the 
daimyos, the great feudal chiefs; and above them again 
in rank, though not in wealth and power, were the kuge, 
or court nobles of Kyoto, numbering 150 families, all 
branches, more or less distant, of the Imperial house. 
The samurai had the right to wear two swords. For 
centuries they " monopolized arms, learning, patriotism, 
and intellect." They furnished the leaders who brought 
about the Revolution of 1868. Since then most of the 
officials and leaders of public thought have come from 
their midst. The advance of education and the establish- 
ment of representative government has had a tendency 
to give more power to other classes. Hence, in the lower 
house of the first Imperial Parliament, only 107 of the 300 
members were shizoku; and only nine of the forty-five 
persons chosen by the highest tax-payers of the prefect- 
ures to represent them in the upper house. 

IX. The Language — i. When Japan was first opened 
the opinion became common that its language would 
be an easy one for Europeans to acquire; now it is rec- 
ognized to be one of the most difficult. '' But, of course, 
not so hard as Chinese," says many a person, little know- 
ing that in addition to the original Japanese, the student 
must also learn Chinese in two or more of its ancient 
dialects. The civilization of Japan came largely frorri 
China, and with it came the Chinese method of writing, 



34 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

as well as a large infusion of Chinese words. Since that 
time there has been but little development of the real Jap- 
anese language, new ideas having found expression in 
compound Chinese words. Nearly every ideograph has 
two and sometimes three Chinese pronunciations which 
must never be confused and must sometimes be replaced 
by the Japanese word. 

2. The use of these ideographs imposes a great burden 
upon the young people of Japan, who must learn a large 
number of them in order to read any but the simplest 
books, or even to understand the signs upon the shops. 
There has been much discussion about the possibility of 
doing away with the system. Anything can be easily 
written with the Japanese syllabary of fifty characters, 
or even with the Roman letters, and there is no trouble 
in pronouncing what is so written ; but since so many 
of the syllabic words introduced from^ the Chinese have 
the same sound, the ambiguity is so great that without 
the accompanying ideographs to help the eye it is often 
impossible to understand the meaning. 

3. There is probably no way to get over the difficulty 
until Japanese writers are ready to adopt a simpler style, 
to shun Chinese words, and thus to develop the language 
of their own country. The colloquial language differs 
considerably from the written. There are local dialects, 
but those of Tokyo or Kyoto are everywhere understood. 



in 

Japan in Past Times 

1. Alleged Antiquity of the Imperial Dynasty.— 

I. The present Emperor of Japan, Mutsuhito, claims to 
be the 123d sovereign in direct succession. Remembering 
that Queen Victoria is only the thirtieth from William the 
Conqueror, we can form an idea of the alleged antiquity 
of Japanese annals. The Japanese boast that, in marked 
contrast to all other nations, they can point to one line 
of emperors that has been unbroken for more than 2,500 
years. Many would consider it almost treasonable to 
doubt the assertion. The first Emperor is said to have 
been Jimmu Tenno, the date of whose accession corre- 
sponds with 660 B.C., and who would thus be contempo- 
rary with Manasseh King of Judah and Assurbanipal 
King of Assyria. His parents were gods, descended from 
the great Sun-Goddess. The title Tenno signifies Heav- 
enly King, and, like Tenshi, or Son of Heaven, is a com- 
mon appellation for the Emperors. The word Mikado, 
formerly current, is now but seldom heard. 

2. Whatever may be believed by Japanese, foreign 
'scholars consider that authentic history does not begin 
till the seventh century, a.d. ; but from that time to the 
present the records are complete and trustworthy. What- 
ever reduction must be made from the alleged antiquity 
of the Imperial line, it occupies a unique place in the 
world. It should be remembered, however, that the fam- 
ily has been kept up by concubinage and by adoption from 
collateral lines. 

XL Ancient Literature. — i. Japan possesses a volumi- 
nous literature that contains the traditions and history of 
past ages. The oldest works extant are the Kojiki, or 
" Records of Ancient Matters," and the '"'■ Nihongi/* or 
" Chronicles of Japan," the former completed in 712 a.d., 



36 Japan and its regeneration 

and the latter in 720. The two books treat of the same 
things, but, as said by Professor Chamberlain, " the lan- 
guage of the latter and its manner of treating the national 
traditions stand in notable contrast to the unpretending 
simplicity of the elder work." " The subject-matter is 
touched up, rearranged, and polished, so as to make the 
work resemble a Chinese history as far as possible." Many 
commentaries have been written upon these books. They 
contain the cosmogony, the mythology, and the early his- 
tory of the nation. Much of the contents is fabulous on 
the face of it. 

2. The chief authority for the later and more trust- 
worthy history is the Dai Nihon Shi, or " History of 
Great Japan," a really great work, published in 171 5. It 
is written in pure Chinese, which is to Japanese what 
Latin is to the languages of modern Europe, and fills 
243 volumes. The people are enthusiastically fond of the 
history of their country, and local records, diaries, official 
guide-books, etc., abound. There are hundreds of chil- 
dren's histories ; and the national annals hold a promi- 
nent place in the education of the young. 

III. Early Traditions — i. This is not the place to 
attempt any summary of Japanese history, but a few notes 
of real or fancied events may be added. The earliest tra- 
ditions of the empire, embodied in the *' Records of An- 
cient Matters " and the " Chronicles of Japan," are of the 
scantiest kind possible. From the beginning of the reign 
of Jimmu's successor there is, says Professor Chamber- 
lain, " a blank of — according to the accepted chronology 
— 500 years, during which absolutely nothing is related 
excepting dreary genealogies — the place where each sov- 
ereign dwelt and .where he was buried, and the age to 
which he lived." 

2. But the later traditions have their heroes: Suijin, 
the civilizer, who, with the aid of his generals, subdued 
various turbulent districts in the first century B.C. ; 
Yamato-Dake, of the Imperial family, a great conqueror ; 
and the Emperor Seimu, who divided the empire into 
provinces, districts, cities, towns, etc., in the second cen- 
tury A.D. ; and, in particular, the Empress Jingu (i.e., 
" Godlike Exploit "), who, after her husband's death, took 
the reins of power, and subsequently assisted her son, 



JAPAN IN PAST TIMES 37 

who was born after her return from Korea, in the govern- 
ment of the empire. She flourished in the third century 
A.D., was renowned for her '' beauty, piety, intelligence, 
energy, and martial valor," and is particularly remem- 
bered as the conqueror of Korea. In the fourth century 
A.D. lived Nintoku, the sage Emperor, a man of simple 
tastes and habits, whose benign rule was characterized 
by paternal consideration for the poorer classes of his 
subjects. He remitted all taxation for three years, and 
it is said that during his reign there was no criminal trial. 
IV. Historical Events. — Although some actual facts 
may have been at the foundation of the traditions already 
given, they must be classed as myths where a possible 
sub-stratum of truth has been overlaid with fancy and 
fable. We now turn to a later period, where we find 
surer ground for tracing the historical development of 
the nation. 

1. Important Changes. — In the seventh century a.d. 
the custom of attaching special names to successive pe- 
riods of years, as in China, was introduced, though unlike 
that country, these periods have not always coincided 
with the reigns of different emperors. The present era, 
commencing with 1868, is known as that of Meiji, " Illus- 
trious Rule." The Emperor who introduced this system 
also appointed governors over the provinces, established 
posts, and enrolled an army for defensive purposes. In 
the same century the reign of Tenji, which was charac- 
terized by the introduction of water-wheels, the first man- 
ufacture of iron-ware, and the foundation of schools, is 
considered the most prosperous one of the middle ages. 
In the next century the Chinese calendar was introduced. 
It continued in use until 1872, when it was superseded by 
the Gregorian. 

2. Rise of the Feudal System. — Though the Emperor 
remained the absolute sovereign, the actual power passed 
into the hands of the noble families, who set up puppet 
mikados, to whom they married their daughters and whom 
they surrounded by influences that tempted to indolence 
and debauchery. After this had continued for three or 
four centuries, great military leaders arose. The wars 
between contending factions favored the development of 
a feudal system. The great nobles or daimyos in their 



38 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

fortified castles became more and more powerful and in- 
dependent. Their armed retainers formed the military 
caste of samurai, already noticed. For many centuries, 
coming down to our own day, Japan was in much the 
same condition as Scotland is pictured to us in the pages 
of Sir Walter Scott, parcelled out among great clans, the 
chiefs of which professed unbounded loyalty to the sov- 
ereign, while keeping much of the real power in their 
own hands. The daimyos were the ^lacduffs and the 
Macdonalds, the Campbells and the Douglases of Japan. 
3. Rise of the Shogunate. — Toward the close of the 
twelfth century a.d., Yoritomo, who belonged to the ^li- 
namoto clan, one of the two great rival families of the 
time, and who after his father's defeat had been exiled 
as a boy, succeeded, in concert with other members of the 
family, in completely destroying the power of the rival 
house. Thus becoming military master of the country, 
he ended by himself usurping all the executive authority 
of the state while still acknowledging the Emperor as his 
liege lord. He subsequently received the title of Shogun 
(General), and laid the foundation of the dual form of 
government which lasted till 1868, more than 200 years. 
Foreigners have been greatly puzzled by this system, and 
long supposed that there were two emperors — the Mikado, 
or spiritual Emperor, and the Shogun, or temporal Em- 
peror. The latter became better known by the name of 
Tycoon (the word signifies Great Prince), a title w^hich 
was used without authorization by the later Shoguns in 
their negotiations with foreigners. Though the Shoguns 
were practically rulers of the land, they acknowledged the 
Emperor as their superior and were nominally appointed 
by him. Yoritomo made Kamakura his capital, and there 
the power of the Shoguns was chiefly centred until 
leyasu transferred it to Yedo in the seventeenth century. 
The Mikado held his court at the sacred capital Kyoto, 
rarely appearing before his subjects, but was worshipped 
by them as a god, though often treated with great neglect. 
For instance, it is related that the body of one Emperor 
lay for several days unburied because sufficient money 
could not be raised for funeral expenses, while for a like 
reason the coronation ceremony of another was delayed 
for twenty-two years. 



JAPAN IN PAST TIMES 39 

4. Noted Military Rulers. — The greatest of the miH- 
tary rulers was Hideyoshi, who, however, never took the 
title of Shogun. He is better known as Taiko Sama (a 
title meaning "Great Counsellor"), and was contempo- 
rary with Queen Elizabeth. He sent out an expedition 
that conquered Korea, and he is said to have planned for 
an invasion of China. It was he who, as will be afterward 
narrated, banished the Jesuit missionaries. On his death 
in 1598 one of his generals, leyasu, of the Tokugawa 
clan, usurped power, and after a severe struggle, which 
is interesting to us on account of the part taken in it 
by the Roman Catholic Japanese, totally defeated his rivals 
at the battle of Sekigahara. " This battle decided the 
condition of Japan for over two centuries, the settlement 
of the Tokugawa family in hereditary succession to the 
Shogunate, the fate of Christianity, the isolation of Japan 
from the world, the fixing into permanency of the dual 
system and of feudalism, the glory and greatness of Yedo 
as the Shogun's capital." The last of the Shoguns, who 
was deposed in 1868, belonged to the Tokugawa family, 
and was the fifteenth in succession from leyasu. 



IV 

The Religions of Japan 

1. Shintoism. — i. Meaning of the Name. — The an- 
cient religion of the Japanese is called Kami no michi, 
" the way of the gods." The Chinese equivalent of the 
name, Shin-to, is the one commonly used ; hence this 
religion is called by English writers Shintoism. 

2. General Description. — Mr. Kodera describes it as 
" simply a remnant of the primitive worship long preva- 
lent among the rude tribes of the islands of Japan, and 
subsequently developed and shaped according to the de- 
gree of civilization to which they attained ; " *' a mixture 
of that nature worship which is so common among unciv- 
ilized races, and the worship of ancestors, especially of 
some chiefs or heroes." Nature worship led to the deifica- 
tion of the heavenly bodies, and at least reverence for 
lofty mountains, bold cliffs, aged trees, and other striking 
objects. It also took on debased forms; and though the 
government, after the advent of foreigners, caused many 
offensive images to be removed, they are still occasionally 
seen. Shintoism in its present forms is chiefly founded 
on the mythologies and traditions preserved in the Ko- 
jiki, where it appears as " a bundle of miscellaneous 
superstitions, rather than a co-ordinate system." 

3. Its Mythology. — Shintoism represents the first dei- 
ties as coming into existence when from a state of chaos 
heaven and earth spontaneously began. Five single dei- 
ties and seven pairs, called the Seven Divine Generations, 
successively appear, while the earth still continues as a 
formless mass, and the land is like floating oil that drifts 
about as does a jelly-fish. Then Izanagi and Izanami, 
the last of these divine pairs, receive commandment from 
the heavenly deities to consolidate and give form to the 
drifting land. They " are united in marriage and give 

40 



THE RELIGIONS OF JAPAN 4 1 

birth to the various islands of the Japanese archipelago. 
When they have finished producing islands they proceed 
to the production of a large number of gods and god- 
desses, many of whom correspond with what we should 
call personifications of the powers of nature." 

Subsequently Izanami dies in childbirth and goes to 
the land of Hades. Izanagi visits her there, and on his 
return " purifies himself by bathing in a stream, and, 
as he does so, fresh deities are born from each article 
of clothing that he throws down on the river-bank, and 
from each part of his person. One of these deities was 
the Sun-goddess, who was born from his left eye," and 
to whom he gave the charge to rule the Plain of High 
Heaven. This late-born child of Izanagi is the supreme 
deity of Shintoism, and her supremacy rests not only on 
the fact that the sun is the greatest visible sign of the 
powers of nature, but on the belief that the Sun-goddess 
is the ancestress of the ruling family of Japan. Each suc- 
cessive Emperor, according to the orthodox Shinto view, 
is directly descended from her. This is, indeed, the funda- 
mental belief of present-day Shintoism, and out of it 
grows the duty of absolute obedience to the Emperor, 
which is one of the main characteristic features of the 
system. According to Motoori, as summarized by Sir 
Ernest Satow, he " is the immovable ruler who must 
endure to the end of time, as long as the sun and moon 
continue to shine." In ancient language the Emperor was 
called a god, and, although no longer worshipped, he is 
regarded with extreme veneration, and unquestioning 
obedience is enforced as a fundamental duty. 

4. Objects of Worship. — Together with the Sun-god- 
dess, numerous other deities, commonly spoken of as '' the 
eight hundred myriads of gods," are worshipped. These 
include " not only the Imperial ancestors and those divine 
personages who lived in the mythological age, but numer- 
ous poets, scholars, warriors, statesmen, and patriots 
" who have been successively deified in both ancient and 
modern times by Imperial decree, it being a part of the 
prerogative of the representative of the Sun-goddess thus 
to appoint gods to be honored by the nation." 

These multitudinous deities govern all things. '' They 
direct the changes of the seasons, the wind and the rain, 



42 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

the good and bad fortune of states and individual men ; " 
hence the occasions for seeking their protection and de- 
liverance are manifold. Their worship is very general. 
In most houses the " god-shelf " is found, on which are 
placed symbols showing that one or more Shinto deities 
are reverenced by the family. Every village, town, or 
division of a town has its patron deity and common tem- 
ple ; the inhabitants of the district are called the children 
of the god and bring their infant children to be dedicated 
to him. When the local festivals are held business is 
often suspended and each householder hangs a large lan- 
tern at his door in honor of the god. 

5. ''Revival of Pure Shinto.'' — The introduction of 
Buddhism in the sixth century a.d. checked the develop- 
ment of Shintoism. By different sects the two religions 
were combined in varying degrees ; but Buddhism, as 
the stronger force, was the most prominent element, in 
these admixtures. In the eighteenth century began what 
has been called the " Revival of Pure Shinto." Literary 
men became interested in the ancient history of the coun- 
try and inaugurated a movement, partly religious and 
partly political, whose object was a renewed reverence 
for the Imperial family and a return to the old ways. This 
movement culminated in the revolution of 1868, which 
overthrew the Shogunate and restored the government 
to the Emperors. Shintoism was then made the state re- 
ligion, to be superintended by a Council for Spiritual Af- 
fairs, of equal rank with the council that controlled tem- 
poral matters. Many Buddhist temples that occupied the 
places once held by Shinto shrines were stripped of their 
images and ornaments as they were restored to the care 
of Shinto priests. The movement soon lost its intensity, 
the Council of Spiritual Affairs was gradually reduced 
to the rank of a sub-bureau, and most of the temples 
returned to their former condition. 

6. Shinto Shrines. — Great simplicity characterizes the 
architecture of Shinto shrines. During the ascendency 
of Buddhism elaborately decorated and highly ornament- 
ed temples were erected with torii — a kind of gateway — 
of bronze or granite ; but the pure Shinto shrine is built 
of plain, uncolored wood, thatched with bark or covered 
with shingles, and its torii are made of trunks of fir with 



THE RELIGIONS OF JAPAN 43 

the bark removed. The most sacred shrines in the coun- 
try are those of the Sun-goddess and the Goddess of Food 
in the province of Ise, which are near each other and are 
known as the ** Two Great Divine Palaces." They are 
annually visited by thousands of pilgrims from all parts 
of the Empire. 

Pure Shintoism has no images, but every temple con- 
tains some object, which properly should be within the 
doors of the actual shrine, and in it the spirit of the deity 
is supposed to reside. In the temple of the Sun-goddess 
this object is the mirror that, according to the tradition, 
was given by the goddess to her grandson, Ninigi, when 
he was sent to subdue the earth, and with reference to 
which she said, ** Look upon this mirror as my spirit, 
keep it in the same house and on the same floor with 
yourself, and worship it as if you were worshipping my 
actual presence." All the mirrors in Shinto temples are 
imitations of this one, but it is Buddhist influence that 
has led to their being usually exposed to view. The 
gohei — " a slender wand of unpainted wood from which 
depend two long strips of paper notched alternately on 
opposite sides " — may be seen wherever the gods are wor- 
shipped. Originally offerings of white cloth, which, from 
its preciousness, was supposed to attract the gods, " the}^ 
came in later times to be considered as the seats of the 
gods, and even the gods themselves." ^ 

7. Priests and Worshippers. — Shinto priests, except 
when engaged in religious rites, do not wear a distinctive 
dress. Celibacy is not required, and they are at liberty 
to give up the priesthood. Girls and sometimes adult 
women act as priestesses and perform religious dances. 
The other services consist chiefly of the recital of ancient 
formulas, and the offering of rice, rice-beer, salt, fruit, 
vegetables, and other articles of food. The rites are often 
accompanied by shrill, mournful music performed upon 
flutes and other instruments. Much stress is laid on bod- 
ily purification. Not only must the priest bathe before 
officiating and place a piece of paper over his mouth when 
presenting offerings, but every worshipper before he ap- 
proaches the god must wash his hands and rinse his 
mouth with water from the laver at the entrance of the 
temple. In the morning worshippers go into the open 



44 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

air before their houses, bow their heads, clap their hands, 
and adore the rising sun. 

8. Is Shintoism a Religion^ — By many persons, both 
foreign and Japanese, it is said that Shintoism is not a 
religion, but a system for inculcating loyalty and patriot- 
ism. The ceremonies at the shrines of heroes and of the 
Imperial ancestors are declared not to be worship, but 
simply services in honor of great men ; the offerings made 
at these shrines being like the wreaths that are placed on 
the tomb of Napoleon, or the flowers that on Memorial 
Day are strewn over the graves of American soldiers. 

Though this theory is held by many educated men who 
join in the Shinto ceremonies, and though the rites may 
ultimately be modified in accordance with such a view, 
it cannot be doubted that most frequenters of the shrines 
consider that they there worship divine beings, and that 
the services are of a religious nature. 

II. Buddhism. — Whatever the influence of Shintoism 
has been upon the social and political life of the Japanese, 
and however closely it is interwoven with their customs 
and institutions, Buddhism has been the most powerful 
religious force in the nation. 

1. Introduction into Japan. — Buddhism had run its 
course of a thousand years in India and had been finally 
overthrown and banished by the Brahmins, before it 
spread to Japan, whither it was brought by way of China 
and Korea. At first it made its way but slowly among 
the Japanese. Introduced into the Empire toward the 
close of the sixth century a.d., it was, after some opposi- 
tion, adopted by many of the nobles ; but it did not make 
much headway among the people until the ninth century, 
when a priest named Kukai, better known by his posthu- 
mous name of Kobo Daishi, who had travelled in China, 
tried to combine the two religions by teaching that the 
Shinto gods and heroes were manifestations of Buddhist 
saints. 

2. Doctrines. — Japanese Buddhism has assum.ed forms 
that differ considerably from those now found in China, 
and still more from the religion as it formerly flourished 
in India. The Buddhists of Japan must not be thought 
of as a homogeneous body. They are divided into many 
widely varying sects — shu — and between some of these 



THE RELIGIONS OF JAPAN 45 

there is much antagonism. A discussion of the various 
doctrines would occupy too much space, but mention may 
be made of a few points in which there is general agree- 
ment. 

There is no recognition of a Creator or Sovereign Ruler 
of the universe, but this is said to have been produced 
spontaneously. There is belief in a kind of transmigra- 
tion. When a man dies the good or evil deeds that he 
wrought during life will lead to the production of a new 
being. If the demerits of the person have exceeded his 
merits, the new being will be of a lower grade than the 
old ; thus a man may be re-born as a woman, or even 
as an animal or plant. On the other hand, a meritorious 
life leads to birth in some higher class of humanity or as 
a blessed spirit. All of this is wrought by the law of cause 
and effect ; and sooner or later every evil deed will 
yield its fruit of calamity; every good deed will bring 
its happiness; or, reasoning in the other direction, every 
calamity and even every evil deed came from something 
in the past, and so could not be avoided. The succession 
of birth and death is an evil, and salvation from it is 
to be attained through the enlightenment that enables one 
to see the illusory nature of all things and so to cease from 
all desire. Thus the enlightened one at last reaches " Nir- 
vana," a state whose exact nature it is difficult to define 
and concerning which the opinions of different sects vary. 

3. The Shin Sect. — The sect that has the most influ- 
ence among the common people is the Shin-shu, which 
is an offshoot from the older Jodo-shu. Its importance 
will justify some account of its teaching, chiefly summa- 
rized from a paper by Mr. James Troup, formerly the 
British Consul at Kobe. According to Buddhism, the 
" unenlightened," who have not attained to Buddhahood, 
are subject to the evil of birth and death, '* sinking and 
floating in the sea of existence " through ages measured 
by millions of years ; and the aim of all sects is to obtain 
deliverance from the cycle of birth and death — in other 
words, to reach Nirvana. Thus far agreed, they differ 
in regard to the means of attaining this end. Those sects 
which follow what is called the " Holy Path " seek deliv- 
erance " by the practice of the moral and religious pre- 
cepts and prohibitions of Buddhism "^ — that is to say, by 
good works and virtuous actions. 



46 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

On the other hand, those of the " Pure Land "—the 
Jodo-shu, and its offshoot the Shin-shu — look upon this 
way of salvation as utterly impossible for men in the pres- 
ent age of the world, this being, according to Buddhist 
doctrine, the '' Period of the Latter Days of the Law," 
when '' the inferior capacities of men are dark, and they 
cannot tread the Holy Path and rise to perfection." They 
consequently seek deliverance by birth into the Pure Land 
of Amida Buddha, resting their faith and hope on the 
vows which this imaginary being of bygone ages is said 
to have made. The eighteenth of these vows is as fol- 
lows : *' If, when I attain Buddhahood, any of the living 
beings in the ten regions, who with sincerity, having faith 
and joy and an ardent desire to be born into My Country, 
call My Name to remembrance ten times, should not then 
be born there, I shall not accept enlightenment." This is 
interpreted by the Shin-shu to mean that men of all classes 
and conditions and in all ages of the world — whether 
priests or laymen, merchants or husbandmen, whether 
married or single, with or without families, whether ab- 
staining from flesh and wine or not — if they only put 
forth the believing heart and invoke Amida Buddha, after 
this life they will be born in Heaven — they will reach Nir- 
vana. 

Three points of this teaching must be noted : ( i ) Believ- 
ers invoke Amida alone. The formula of the sect re- 
peated hundreds of times in a day is Namu Amida Butsu, 
" Hail, Amida Buddha." (2) The beheving heart is not 
faith by one's own power, faith excited and kept alive 
by means of religious observances, but " faith by the 
power of another " — a believing heart conferred by the 
power of Amida. (3) The invocation of Amida — "the 
action of calling to remembrance with the living voice " 
his sacred name — results from the possession of a believ- 
ing heart. Its object is not to obtain salvation as a re- 
ward, but to express gratitude for the boundless com- 
passion of Amida and for the certainty of deliverance by 
being born into his Pure Land. 

4. Buddhist Temples. — Whereas Shinto shrines are 
very simple in their architecture. Buddhist temples are 
usually massive and beautiful edifices. They are often 
built in dark valleys or on mountain sides, and are sur- 



The religions of japan 47 

rounded by groves of ancient trees. The Shin sect, how- 
ever, puts its temples in the midst of the cities. Some 
of the most beautiful places in Japan are the groves and 
gardens connected with Buddhist temples. Massive bells, 
struck on the outside by a piece of timber, suspended by 
ropes so as to swing like a battering-ram, flood the air 
with their deep, mellow tones. The altars within the 
temples are gorgeous with gilded images, candelabra, and 
the other paraphernalia of worship. The air is heavy with 
incense. Priests in gorgeous robes chant Sanskrit pray- 
ers whose meaning is unintelligible to the hearers and 
even to most of the priests themselvjes. In the yards of 
some temples are to be seen wooden pillars inscribed Vv^ith 
prayers and having a little iron wheel attached. The 
wheel can easily be set in motion by the hand, every revo- 
lution bringing as much merit to the worshipper as though 
he had repeated the prayer. Sometimes there is a large 
octagonal structure said to contain all the books of the 
Buddhist canon. This can be made to revolve, and so 
with a little effort one can gain all the benefit that would 
come from a perusal of the volumes. Some of the most 
popular temples have on their grounds a number of build- 
ings occupied by shops, tea-houses, theatres, peep-shows, 
etc. 

5. Buddhist Priests. — Priests, monks, and nuns, of all 
grades, abound in Japan. In Japanese history, romance, 
drama, and art, as in those of Europe, the monk and nun 
are staple characters ; and as in the West, so in the East, 
their character and reputation vary greatly. In medi- 
aeval Japan the monks were not seldom the sole possessors 
of scholarship and the most civilizing agency in the com- 
munity. The sciences of astronomy and mathematics, 
the arts of painting and sculpture, were cultivated in the 
monasteries. Many of them took an important part in 
politics. Some of the temples were at that time very 
much like military camps, and the priest often wore ar- 
mor under his robes. One Emperor, who was congratu- 
lated upon his power, said that there remained three 
things that he could not control : the waters of the Kamo 
River, which sometimes overflowed its banks ; the throw 
of the dice ; and the turbulent priests of Mt. Hiei, near 
Kyoto. Even in modern times the priests have had con- 



48 JAPAN- AND ITS REGENERATION 

siderable political influence, and especially those of Shin- 
shu have compelled the government to modify its policy 
rather than to offend such a powerful sect. 

6. Persecution by Buddhists. — It is sometimes asserted 
that Buddhism has never exhibited a persecuting spirit, 
but such has not been the case in Japan. When the priest 
Nichiren in the thirteenth century founded a new sect 
that bears his name, a host of enemies rose against him 
and secured his banishment. Through their efforts he 
was condemned to be beheaded, and was saved, as his fol- 
lowers believe, by a miracle. The sect has ever since 
had to contend against the enmity of the others, though 
its own bigotry furnishes some excuse for this opposi- 
tion. In recent years there have been in some sections 
of the country excited meetings to denounce the belief 
of the Nichiren-shu as not being true Buddhism. 

The Jesuit missionaries of the sixteenth century soon 
found the Buddhist priests bitterly arrayed against them 
and their believers. Unfortunately, as soon as the Chris- 
tians gained power they showed as much of the spirit 
of persecution and perhaps more than that which had 
thus far assailed them. The Buddhists had no small part' 
in exciting the suspicion of the government against Chris- 
tianity and in the movements for driving it from the land. 
Afterward the Buddhist priests exerted themselves to 
search out secret adherents of the hated doctrine in order 
to secure their imprisonment or exile. In recent years 
the priests have brought their power to bear against the 
spread of Christianity. They have found many ways to 
annoy believers and sometimes have stirred up their pa- 
rishioners to deeds of violence. In many places they have 
induced people to sign an agreement that they will not 
have any social or business relations with Christians. 
This has sometimes gone so far that the latter have been 
forbidden to draw water from the village wells. 

III. Confucianism. — Perhaps Confucianism deserves 
even less than Shintoism to be reckoned as a religion. 
It is more properly a system of ethical and political phi- 
losophy. Confucius himself refused to declare any opin- 
ion about the gods or concerning the future life. As de- 
veloped by some of his commentators, the system has 
taken on doctrines and ideas that are more closely re- 
lated to religion. It has certainly modified the religious 



THE RELIGIONS OF JAPAN 49 

thinking of the Japanese, has been combined with other 
systems to form new sects, and has been with many peo- 
ple the only religion professed. Like Buddhism, Confu- 
cianism probably made its first entrance to Japan by way 
of Korea. Its ethics are based upon the " five relations " : 
of lord and retainer, father and son, husband and wife, 
elder and younger brother, friend and friend. As a re- 
ligion it is pantheistic. Though the thought of Japan has 
been largely shaped by its teaching, Confucianism as a 
system is now regarded with but little reverence. The 
Chinese Classics, which were its text-books, are much 
neglected ; for Japan feels that China is no longer fitted 
to be her teacher. Nevertheless the influence that has 
been exerted by Confucianism in the past will long modify 
the whole philosophical, political, ethical, and religious 
thought of the land. 

IV. Other Religious Systems. — There are various mi- 
nor sects, many of them being of recent origin, which have 
considerable influence over the common people. Most of 
them are combinations in varied proportions of elements 
derived from the three systems already mentioned. In 
some cases they may have been affected by the Christian 
doctrines taught by the Jesuit missionaries which have 
not been wholly forgotten by the people. Two of these 
religions may be mentioned as specimens of the class. 

I. KiirozMmi. — This is reckoned as a sect of Shinto. 
Kurozumi, its founder, was born in 1780 and died in 1850. 
When about thirty-five years old he was brought near to 
death's door by consumption. He was led to believe that 
the cause of his disease was that his soul had become filled 
with the gloomy negative spirit, and this he determined 
to expel by imbibing the cheerful positive spirit that comes 
from the sun. He commenced to worship the rising sun, 
at the same time inhaling deep breaths of the fresh air 
lighted by its rays. Soon his health and spirits were re- 
stored; and he commenced to heal and teach others. 

The success of the sect is largely attributable to the 
belief that its leaders are able to cure diseases through 
faith accompanied by certain rites. At this point it bears 
a striking resemblance to many theories found in Western 
lands. The Sun-god is the chief object of worship. Man's 
soul is regarded as an emanation from this god, and so as 



50 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

being holy at birth. By intercourse with other men and 
through the temptations of the flesh a man becomes cor- 
rupt. Righteousness is to be regained by conquering self- 
ishness ; or, as otherwise expressed, by freeing one's self 
from evil desire. When men, through divine aid, are freed 
from sin, they become one with the Sun-god. Cheerful- 
ness, thankfulness for the blessings received from the 
gods, faith, freedom from evil desires, and self-restraint 
are the virtues most emphasized. 

2. Tenrikyo. — The name signifies " Doctrine of the 
Heavenly Reason." The sect that follows this teaching 
has during the last twenty years had a remarkable growth, 
and claims to number over five million adherents. Its 
founder was a peasant woman who was born in 1798. 
When forty years old she fell into a trance, during w^hich 
she received, as she afterward declared, revelations from 
the gods, who chose her to give new light to mankind. 
One feature of the message was that the relation between 
the gods and men is like that between parents and chil- 
dren. The soul of man is an emanation from the gods, 
to whom it returns after death. Sin and disease are caused 
by impurity of the heart. It is said that, while the found- 
er's teaching recognized many gods, it had a tendency 
toward monotheism. She left no writings except some 
hymns whose meaning is not very plain to outsiders, and 
the doctrines of the sect seem to be a strange jumble. 

Whether or not she knew anything of Christian ideas, 
it is certain that many preachers of the present day do 
not hesitate to incorporate them into their sermons. The 
missionary spirit of the believers is an interesting feature. 
Even jinrikisha-puUers and other uneducated men engage 
in preaching and other means of propagating the doctrine. 
Men of means sometimes give over their whole property 
for the use of the sect. There are numerous meetings 
with sermons, singing of hymns, and dancing. As with 
the Kurozumi sect, much is made of faith-healing, and 
stories of wonderful cures are abundant. The sect is rec- 
ognized by the government, but is bitterly attacked by 
the Buddhists. Its enemies charge that the meetings are 
often attended with great immorality. There is some 
reason for thinking that the sect has passed the zenith 
of its power and that the number of adherents is now 
diminishing. 



V 

The Jesuit Missions 

I. Europeans Become Acquainted with Japan — " Zi- 

pangu," says Marco Polo, " is an island toward the east, 
in the high seas, 1,500 miles distant from the Continent, 
and a very great island it is. The people are white, civ- 
ilized, and well-favored. They are idolators, and they 
are dependent on nobody, and I can tell you the quantity 
of gold they have is endless." These words, written by 
the old Venetian traveller six centuries ago, however in- 
accurate, first revealed to Europe the existence of Japan. 
Marco Polo spent seventeen years, 1275- 1292, at the court 
of Kublai Khan ; and there he heard of the Land of the 
Rising Sun, which the great Tatar chieftain had tried 
in vain to conquer, his fleet being utterly destroyed by 
the winds and waves. Marco Polo's book appeared in 
1298. Two hundred years later it found an ardent stu- 
dent in Christopher Columbus ; and there is little doubt 
that, when the discoverer of America sailed out into the 
West, it was Japan that he sought; but not until 1542 
did any European reach Japan, and then it was not across 
the Atlantic, but around the Cape of Good Hope ; and 
it was not a Spaniard, but a Portuguese, Mendez Pinto, 
whose vessel was driven thither by stress of weather. 
Japanese historians note that year as the date of the first 
appearance of foreigners, Christianity, and fire-arms. 

II. The Missionaries. — i. Xavicr. — A young Japa- 
nese named Anjiro, wandered to India in one of the 
Portuguese vessels and there met Francis Xavier, the 
fam.ous Jesuit missionary. Having accepted Christian- 
ity, he became a student in the college that had been es- 
tabhshed at Goa. Xavier became much interested in 
the young man and in his country. When he asked Anjiro 
what prospects Christianity would have in Japan, the 

51 



52 JAPAN- AND ITS REGENERATION 

latter answered : " My people would not immediately as- 
sent to what might be said to them, but they would inves- 
tigate this religion by a multitude of questions, and, above 
all, by observing whether your conduct agreed with your 
words. This done, the daimyos, the nobility, and the 
people would flock to Christ, being a nation which always 
follows reason as a guide." Notwithstanding the op- 
position of his friends and the great dangers that at- 
tended such an undertaking, Xavier determined to go 
to Japan. 

He was accompanied by another priest, a lay brother, 
Anjiro, and two servants who had come with the latter 
to India. After various adventures they landed, in Au- 
gust, 1549, at Kagoshima, a port in the southern part of 
Kyushu. Here they were at first kindly received. Xavier 
relates that in an interview with the Prince of the prov- 
ince Anjiro *' showed a beautiful picture he had brought 
from India, of the Blessed Mary and the Child Jesus 
sitting in her lap. When the Prince looked upon it, he 
was overwhelmed with emotion, and, falling on his knees, 
he very devoutly worshipped it, and commanded all pres- 
ent to do the same." Xavier visited several cities and 
made his way as far as Kyoto, but the civil commotions 
of the time had brought the capital into such a state of 
turmoil as was unfavorable for his work. In some other 
cities he was well received. The same restless nature 
that had prevented him from remaining long in any one 
part of India urged him on to new enterprises, and he 
remained only about two years in Japan. He departed 
with the intention of carrying Christianity to China, but 
died on a little island near the coast of that empire. We 
cannot but admire the zeal and devotion of Xavier; yet, 
had he not been followed by others who were willing to 
labor steadily and persistently, little would have been ac- 
complished by his visit to Japan. 

2. Xavier's Successors. — Those who had accompanied 
Xavier to Japan remained after his departure, and were 
joined by others whose zeal had been aroused by the 
glowing letters sent back to Europe. To them was grant- 
ed the joy of reaping an extraordinary harvest. Within 
five years Christian communities were rising in every di- 
rection. At the end of thirty years the converts numbered 



THE JESUIT MISSIONS 53 

150,000 and the churches 200. The Japanese themselves 
give two milhons as the figure uhimately reached, but 
the Jesuits do not claim that, and perhaps half a million 
may be nearer the number. 

III. Conditions That Aided the Jesuits. — i. Relig- 
ious. — In many respects the time at which the Jesuits came 
to Japan was favorable for their work. Shintoism had 
little influence with the people. Buddhism, with all its 
external splendor, had lost most of the religious fervor 
and life it had once possessed. The Jesuit priests gave 
the Japanese all that the Buddhist priests had given them 
— gorgeous altars, imposing processions, dazzling vest- 
ments, and all the scenic display of a sensuous worship — 
but added to these a freshness and fervor that quickly 
captivated the imaginative and impressionable people. 
The Buddhist preacher — unless of the Shin sect — prom- 
ised heavenly rest, such as it was, only after many trans- 
migrations involving many weary lives. The Jesuit 
preacher promised immediate entrance into paradise after 
death to all who received baptism. There was little in 
the Buddhist paraphernalia that needed to be changed, 
much less abandoned. The images of Buddha, with a 
slight application of the chisel, served for images of 
Christ. Each Buddhist saint found his counterpart in 
Roman Christianity ; and the roadside shrines of Kwan- 
on, the Goddess of Mercy, were rededicated to Mary. 
Temples, altars, bells, holy- water vessels, censers, rosaries, 
all were ready and could be easily adapted to the needs 
of the new religion. To Japanese, accustomed to the 
thought of changing from one sect to another, this new 
change seemed slight. Those who have seen both rituals 
often wonder whether Buddhism is a child of Romanism, 
Romanism a child of Buddhism, or whether both did not 
have some common origin. 

2. Political. — There was also a political cause for the 
success of the Jesuits. Nobunaga, who possessed power 
similar to that of the Shoguns, though he never took the 
title, hated the Buddhists and openly favored the mis- 
sionaries, thinking to make them a tool for his own de- 
signs. Among the early converts were several men of 
high rank who used their influence and power in favor 
of the new religion. In 1583 four nobles were sent by 



54 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

the Christian daimyos of Kyushu to Europe as an em- 
bassy to Pope Gregory XIII. to declare themselves vas- 
sals of the Holy See; and at the same time the subjects 
of these same daimyos were ordered to embrace Chris- 
tianity or go into exile. The decree was carried out with 
great cruelty. The spirit of the Inquisition was intro- 
duced into Japan. Buddhist priests were put to death, and 
their monasteries burnt to the ground. The details are 
given, with full approval, by the Jesuit Charlevoix in 
his ** Histoire du Christianisme au Japon." Take one 
passage as a specimen: '' In 1577, the lord of the island 
of Amakusa issued his proclamation by which his subjects 
— whether priests or gentlemen, merchants or tradesmen 
— were required either to turn Christians, or to leave the 
country the very next day. They almost all submitted 
and received baptism, so that in a short time there were 
more than twenty churches in the kingdom. God wrought 
miracles to confirm the faithful in their belief." 

IV. Persecution of the Christians — i. By Hideyoshi. 
— Nobunaga's successor, the famous Hideyoshi, was led 
to suspect that the foreign priests were plotting against 
Japan. A Portuguese sea-captain was reported to have' 
said, " The King, my master, begins by sending priests 
who win over the people ; and when this is done, he de- 
spatches his troops to join the native Christians, and the 
conquest is easy and complete." In 1587 Hideyoshi issued 
a decree of expulsion against the priests. It was not so 
easy to get rid of them. Closing their churches, they 
v/ithdrew from public notice for awhile, but secretly 
continued their work as actively as ever. The Spanish 
Government had been jealous of the monopoly of trade 
enjoyed by the Portuguese, and the governor of the Phihp- 
pines sent an embassy to Plideyoshi seeking permission 
to trade with Japan. In the embassy were some Francis- 
cans, who came in the guise of envoys and tmder the ex- 
press condition that they were not to teach their religion. 
Notwithstanding this and the fact that the Pope had given 
to the Jesuits the exclusive privilege of conducting mis- 
sions in Japan, the Franciscans soon commenced to preach 
openly in the streets, and their activity led to new perse- 
cution. In 1597 twenty-six persons, including six of the 
Franciscan fathers, wxre crucified together at Nagasaki. 



THE JESUIT MISSIONS 55 

2. By leyasiL — Hideyoshi died in 1598, and in the 
struggle for power that followed, the Christian nobles 
took the side of his young son; but the battle of Seki- 
gahara, as already noticed, decided the conflict in favor 
of leyasu. For a time, however, the Church enjoyed com- 
parative peace and prosperity, and leyasu himself re- 
ceived the Bishop and other ecclesiastics with some de- 
gree of favor. A number of Dominican and Augustinian 
fathers, disregarding, as the Franciscans had, the mo- 
nopoly that the Pope had given to the Jesuits, came 
to the country. The quarrels that broke out among the 
different orders proved a source of weakness. In 1614, 
leyasu, believing that he had discovered a plot of the na- 
tive Christians and foreigners for overthrowing his power, 
issued a decree in which he denounced the missionaries 
as enemies of the gods, of Japan, and of the Buddhas. 
All members of religious orders, whether natives or for- 
eigners, were to be sent out of the country, and their 
converts were commanded to recant. Three hundred per- 
sons were at one time deported to Macao. Some Chris- 
tians were sent to the Philippine Islands, where their 
descendants still live. Fire and sword were freely used 
during the following years against the Christians. 

The unhappy victims met torture and death with a forti- 
tude that compels our admiration. They were crucified, 
burnt at the stake, buried alive, torn limb from limb, and 
put to unspeakable torments. Japanese accounts speak 
of many who apostatized ; but all agree that multitudes 
remained unshaken. One Jesuit priest, Christopher Fer- 
reyra, after enduring horrible tortures, was at last hung 
by his feet in such a way that his head was in a hole in 
the ground, from which light and air were nearly ex- 
cluded. His right hand was left loose, that with it he 
might make the prescribed sign of recantation. He hung 
for four hours, it is said, before yielding. He was at once 
released and compelled to become a Japanese inquisitor 
to consign other Christians to torture and death. Roman 
Catholic historians estimate that over a thousand persons, 
European and Japanese, connected with the four orders — 
Jesuit, Franciscan, Dominican, and Augustinian — togeth- 
er with 200,000 of the laity, perished during these perse- 
cutions. 



56 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

3. Revolt of the Christians. — These persecutions, to- 
gether with the misgovernment of certain feudal lords, 
led the Christians of a section of Kyushu to strike a last 
desperate blow for freedom. In 1638 they fortified an 
old castle in Shimabara and raised the flag of revolt. Af- 
ter a two-months' siege they were compelled to surrender, 
and thirty-seven thousand were massacred. This was 
their expiring effort. The Christianity that Rome had 
presented to the Japanese appeared to have become ex- 
tinct. It is said that over the ruins of their castle was 
placed a stone with this inscription: "So long as the 
sun shall warm the earth let no Christian be so bold as 
to come to Japan; and let all know that the King of 
Spain himself, or the Christians' God, or the Great God 
of all, if he violate this command, shall pay for it with his 
head." It has been thought by some that by '' the Chris- 
tians' God '■ was intended either Christ or the Pope. 

4. Christianity not Wholly Destroyed. — After these 
events, as Dr. Griffis says, the name of Christ came to be 
regarded as " the synonym of sorcery, sedition, and all 
that was hostile to the purity of the home and the peace 
of society. . . . Christianity was remembered only 
as an awful scar on the national annals. No vestiges were 
supposed to be left of it, and no knowledge of its tenets 
was held, save by a very few scholars in Yedo, trained 
experts, who were kept, as a sort of spiritual bloodhounds, 
to scent out the adherents of the accursed creed." 

Yet the historical facts show that it was not wholly 
stamped out. A special police commission was organized, 
called " The Christian Inquiry," and every year the Bud- 
dhist priest had to report to the commissioners that no 
Christians were to be found among his parishioners. At 
the entrance to every city and village was a place where 
certain laws were posted, among them being one that 
prohibited belief in the hated religion. High rewards 
were offered to those giving information against those 
who violated this law. Suspected persons were compelled 
to trample on pictures or images of Christ. In some parts 
of the country it was the custom for the whole popula- 
tion once a year to take part in the ceremony of trampling 
on a cross. Now and then a stray Christian would be 
detected and sent into exile. As late as 1829 six men 



THE JESUIT MISSIONS 57 

and an old woman are said to have been crucified at 
Osaka. Yet, as we shall see in a later chapter, it was 
found, when the country was re-opened to foreigners, that 
through the long years many descendants of the ancient 
Christians retained a knowledge of the faith as it had 
been handed down from one generation to another. 



VI 

The Locking and the Unlocking 

1. A Closed Nation. — i. Results of Foreign Inter- 
course. — For two hundred and thim' years Japan was 
closed to the outer world. By the century of intercourse 
with European nations she had gained the knowledge 
of gunpowder, firearms, and tobacco, the ^enrichment of 
her language by a few foreign words, some additions to 
her familiar forms of disease, and an inveterate hatred 
of Christianity. Content with these acquirements and de- 
siring no more, she retired from pubHc gaze. 

2. The Doors Closed. — In 1624 all foreigners except 
Dutch and Chinese were banished from Japan. At the 
same time, the Japanese were forbidden to leave the coun- 
try, and all vessels fitted for long voyages were destroyed. 
It is manifest that these edicts were directed especially 
against communication with Roman Catholic nations. 
The English were not in question. Their share in the 
trade had been small. The first Englishman to enter the 
country. Will Adams, did not land until fifty years after 
Xavier. He came as the pilot of a Dutch fleet, and. be- 
coming the trusted adviser of the Shogun leyasu, spent 
the remainder of his life in the country. The first English 
ship reached Japan only twelve years before the decree 
of expulsion, and ere the decree was issued the English 
traders had left the country. 

3. The Dutch Merchants. — Even the Dutch had to sub- 
mit to very humiliating terms. They were confined to 
a little artificial islet. 600 feet by 200. in Nagasaki harbor, 
called Deshima. and a strong Japanese guard always held 
the small bridge connecting it with the mainland. Only 
one ship was allowed to come to this settlement in six 
months, and when it arrived two water-gates were opened 
for its admission, which remained closed at all other times. 

58 



THE LOCKING AND THE UNLOCKING 59 

Once in four years the Dutch Commissioner had to go 
to Yedo, bearing the costly gifts required as tribute from 
the foreigners. 

Why were the Dutch exempted from the laws that shut 
out other Europeans? In the first place, the government 
considered that it owed to them the discovery of the 
Jesuit plots. One of their vessels intercepted a letter to 
the King of Portugal asking for troops to effect a revo- 
lution, and they eagerly seized the opportunity to discredit 
their Portuguese rivals. Roman Catholic writers claim 
that this letter was forged. In the second place, the 
Dutch carefully abstained from all profession of Chris- 
tianity, as is acknowledged by their own historian 
Kaempfer. One of them, being taxed with his belief, re- 
plied, " No, I am not a Christian ; I am a Dutchman." 
It is averred that they even consented to trample on the 
cross. 

II. Attempts to Open Japan — i. At long intervals ef- 
forts were made by different nations to gain an entrance 
into Japan. A vessel sent by Charles II. was not allowed 
to trade because the Dutch had informed the Japanese 
authorities that Charles had married the daughter of the 
King of Portugal. Russia made efforts to get into Japan 
at the beginning of this century, but without success ; 
afterward she seized some of the northern islands that 
had been part of the Japanese Empire. Various other 
attempts to lead the country out of its seclusion were 
made by America and by European nations. 

2. One of the most interesting efforts to this end was 
a private enterprise in the year 1837. Several Japanese 
sailors who had been wrecked and rescued were sent to 
China, where they came under the care of Dr. Giitzlaff, 
a German missionary. It was determined to make an ef- 
fort to return the men to their homes, it being believed 
that the nature of the errand would secure a courteous 
reception and that thus an opening might be made for 
trade and missions. An American firm in China fitted 
out the ship Morrison, and everything possible was done 
to insure a peaceful reception. Much to the disappoint- 
ment of all, the vessel was fired upon in the two ports 
that it entered; for the Japanese were averse to having 
anything to do with foreigners, and their laws forbade 



6o JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

the return of any of their own people who had once left 
the country. 

III. The Opening — i. The American Expedition.— It 
was reserved for the United States to open the doors that 
had so long been closed. On July 8, 1853, the American 
squadron, commanded by Commodore Perry, anchored 
oft Uraga, at the mouth of the Gulf of Yedo. A Japanese 
official went off to the flagship, but the Commodore was 
determined to negotiate only with authorities of the high- 
est rank, and the official was informed that the President 
of the United States had sent a letter for the Emperor of 
Japan, but that it could be delivered only to a functionary 
properly qualified to receive it. He replied that the laws 
of Japan prohibited any communication with foreigners 
except at the port of Nagasaki, and that the squadron 
must go there. This was exactly what Commodore Perry 
did not mean to do. To go away hundreds of miles from 
Yedo and humbly knock at the little wicket-gate at which 
so many indignities had been inflicted on the Dutch would 
entirely defeat his purpose. Ultimately the quiet but reso- 
lute courtesy of the Commodore prevailed, and a noble 
of high rank was sent to receive the letter. The Commo- 
dore was content to take one step at a time, and, having 
delivered the document with all possible ceremony, he 
sailed away from Japan. 

Eight months afterward he came back again with a 
more powerful squadron than before, to conclude a for- 
mal treaty. Lengthened negotiations followed with the 
officers of the Shogun, whom the Americans supposed to 
be the " temporal Emperor." The Japanese strove hard 
to confine their new friends to Nagasaki, but nothing 
would move the Commodore from his purpose, and on 
March 31, 1854, a treaty was duly signed and sealed, 
which opened two ports — viz. : Shimoda, 100 miles south 
of Yedo, and Hakodate, in Yezo — to American trade. 
Shimoda was soon afterward destroyed by an earthquake, 
and a few years later Yokoham^a was opened instead. 

2. Treaties with European Nations. — Other nations 
were not slow to claim similar advantages, but it was 
only under pressure that the Japanese granted them. 
Russia succeeded in getting a treaty signed, as did Hol- 
land in procuring the withdrav/al of some of the restric- 



THE LOCKING AND THE UNLOCKING 6 1 

tions under which her merchants had labored at Deshima. 
A treaty was also negotiated by a representative of Great 
Britain, but it was never ratified. All concessions were 
at this time refused to France and Portugal, obviously 
because they were Roman Catholic nations. 

3. The Treaties of 1858. — The early treaties, though 
giving foreigners but few privileges, opened the way for 
gaining still more. In 1858 Townsend Harris, represent- 
ing the United States, succeeded, after long and patient 
labors, in negotiating a new treaty, which was followed 
a few weeks later by a similar one with England, arranged 
by Lord Elgin. These treaties for the first time permitted 
citizens of the nations concerned to reside in certain ports 
of Japan. Hakodate, Kanagawa, and Nagasaki were to 
be opened to them in 1859, while Hiogo, Osaka, and Nii- 
gata were to be available at a later date. Other important 
concessions were granted. These treaties were followed 
by similar ones with France and other nations. 

4. Attacks upon Foreigners. — Thus far bloodless vic- 
tories seemed to have been gained, but not without blood- 
shed were the fruits reaped. As soon as the ports were 
opened for residence, merchants hastened to commence 
business, and the Japanese, both rulers and people, ap- 
peared eager for friendly and mutually profitable inter- 
course ; but the turbulent samurai resented the admission 
of strangers to their sacred soil, and a succession of out- 
rages kept the foreign communities in a state of alarm 
for several years. In particular, the American Secretary 
of Legation was assassinated in 1861 ; in the same year 
a desperate assault was made on the house occupied by 
the British Legation, some members of which were badly 
wounded ; in 1862 an English gentleman, Mr. Richard- 
son, was murdered on the highroad ; in 1863 some new 
buildings for the British Legation were blown up, and in 
1864 two English officers were assassinated at Kamakura. 

5. The Bombardment of Kagoshima and Shimonoseki. 
— The parties concerned in these outrages were in some 
cases punished by the Shogun's government, and indem- 
nities paid ; but for Mr. Richardson's death it disclaimed 
responsibility, as the murderers belonged to the powerful 
Satsuma clan, whose regent refused reparation and set 
the Shogun at defiance. The British fleet accordingly 



62 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

P 

sailed to the south end of Kyushu and bombarded the 
chief city of Satsuma, Kagoshima, the place where Xavier 
had landed. In the following year the guns of another 
great feudal chief, the Prince of Choshu, fired upon for- 
eign vessels passing through the Straits of Shimonoseki 
at the western entrance to the Inland Sea. Accordingly, 
an allied fleet, made up of English, French, Dutch, and 
American vessels, bombarded his forts and destroyed them. 
These two actions made a lively impression upon the 
Japanese. The Satsuma and Choshu clans, having learned 
from experience how little prepared they were to contend 
against foreigners, became leaders in the movement for 
closer intercourse with western nations in order to receive 
instruction in the arts that had made them so powerful. 

6. The Emperor Ratifies the Treaties. — The Sliogun- 
ate had assented to the treaties on its own authority. As 
a result, it found itself in a very perplexing position. The 
nobles at Kyoto induced the Emperor to send word that 
the foreigners must be driven from the country. The 
officials in Yedo knew how impossible it would be to 
do this, but they could not openly disobey the Emperor- 
They adopted a temporizing policy, on the one hand as- 
suring the Emperor that his orders would be carried out, 
while, on the other, they found themselves brought, will- 
ingly or unwillingly, into closer relations with the for- 
eigners. At last it became apparent to the latter that the 
Shogun was not the sovereign ruler of the empire, even 
in things temporal, that the Mikado had not sanctioned 
what had been done, and that the great daimyos were 
much enraged at having been ignored in the matter. The 
latter at first objected to the admission of foreigners; 
then, when they saw the advantages of extended trade, 
they objected equally because the Shogun had opened only 
ports over which he had direct control and from whose 
opening they received no profit. This new attitude, joined 
with other influences, led, in 1865, to a ratification of the 
treaties by the Emperor himself. The seclusion of cen- 
turies was over, and Japan came forth into the new and 
strange experiences that lay before her. 



VII 

The Revolution 

I. What It Was.— The year 1868 in Japan was the 
year of one of the most astonishing revolutions in the his- 
tory of the world. What was this Revolution? It was 
(i) the abolition of the Shogunate after it had lasted, 
with slight interruptions, for seven hundred years; 
(2) the resumption by the Emperor of the reins of gov- 
ernment; (3) the voluntary surrender by the daimyos 
of their feudal powers and privileges into the hands of 
the central government; (4) the adoption of the Euro- 
pean system of departments of state with a responsible 
minister at the head of each. It was a radical and thor- 
ough change from feudalism to imperialism, and the first 
step toward constitutional government. 

II. Its Progress. — i. Preparatory Agitation. — This 
Revolution, though to outsiders it appeared sudden and 
seemed to be an immediate consequence of the opening 
of Japan to foreign nations, was in reality the crisis and 
consummation of a long period of silent preparation for 
change. For a century and more the jealousy of the 
daimyos at the exclusive power wielded by the Shogun, 
who was properly only one of themselves, had been grow- 
ing more and more restive, and at the same time an im- 
portant intellectual movement was fashioning the political 
views of the educated classes. A revival of Chinese learn- 
ing, which sprang up at the end of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, imbued the Japanese mind with the ethics of Con- 
fucius, from which they derived lofty ideas of the rever- 
ence due to the sovereign. The publication, in 1715, of 
the Dai Nihon Shi, the great history already mentioned, 
whose central purpose was to exalt the sole authority of 
the Mikado, powerfully stimulated the development of 
these ideas. A revival of Shintoism helped the movement. 

63 



64 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

The study of the old Shinto books showed that the Mi- 
kado had anciently been revered as the representative of 
the gods ; and when the Revolution came a cry arose for 
the abolition of Buddhism, which was identified wath the 
Shogunate. 

2. Effect of the Foreign Treaties. — The detailed history 
of the Revolution cannot be given here. The foreign 
treaties w^ere undoubtedly the immediate occasion of it. 
The Shogun who signed them died shortly after, under 
suspicious circumstances. His successor being a minor,' 
there was appointed as regent an energetic and progressive 
man, w^ho strongly favored foreign intercourse. He w^as 
soon assassinated, and his head was exhibited, with a 
placard inscribed, '' This is the head of a traitor who has 
violated the most sacred law of Japan." Then ensued 
a state of confusion, the Shogun's Council continuing to 
conduct foreign affairs, but defied at home by the dai- 
myos. The young Shogun died in 1866, but not before 
he had at last obtained the Mikado's acceptance of the 
treaties. The daimyos, as intimated in the preceding 
chapter, were beginning to see that Japan w^ould gain and 
not lose by foreign intercourse ; and the Regent of Sat- 
suma had already, despite the law that then prohibited 
Japanese from going abroad, sent young men to visit 
Europe and America. The new Shogun, Keiki, entered 
into intrigues with the envoys of Napoleon IH., hoping 
to make France his ally in the impending struggle. Thus 
both parties were now seeking foreign intercourse, and 
the Revolution, which began with the cry, " Expel the 
foreigners," ended by admitting them more freely. The 
Satsuma men w^ho had visited Europe returned with open 
eyes and high hopes, just in time to guide the empire at 
the crisis of its change, w^hich \vas now imminent. 

3. Resignation of the Shogun. — The new Shogun had 
scarcely assumed power when the Emperor died, Febru- 
ary 3, 1867. His successor, Mutsuhito, being a young 
man, the party of progress seized the opportunity to push 
their designs. They persuaded Keiki, a timid and vacil- 
latin.g man, to resign the Shogunate ; and then, to insure 
complete success, on January 3, 1868, they seized the pal- 
ace at Kyoto and proceeded to administer the government 
in the name of the Emperor. Civil war ensued; but, in 



THE REVOLUTION 6$ 

a desperate battle fought at Fushimi, near Kyoto, which 
lasted three days, the Shogun's army was totally defeated ; 
and, although the northern clans continued the contest 
on their own ground, the Imperial forces were everywhere 
victorious. Within a few months the young Emperor was 
the undisputed ruler of all Japan. Keiki himself submit- 
ted at once and was allowed to live in retirement. Equal 
clemency was shown even to the leaders who held out 
longer, and the very last to lay down his arms, a noble 
named Enomoto, soon afterward became Japanese envoy 
at the court of St. Petersburg, and since then has held 
other high offices. 

4. The Emperor's Oath. — The young Emperor was 
now brought forth from behind the screen of ages, and 
took his place as head of the State. In the presence of 
feudal lords and court nobles he took an oath by which 
he promised that " a deliberative assembly should be 
formed ; all measures should be decided by public opin- 
ion ; the uncivilized customs of former years should be 
broken through ; the impartiality and justice displayed 
in the workings of nature should be adopted as a basis 
of action ; while intellect and learning should be sought 
throughout the world in order to establish the foundations 
of the empire." 

5. Transfer of the Capital. — In the eyes of the people, 
the outward and visible sign of the change was the transfer 
of the capital from Kyoto to Yedo. For nearly three 
centuries Yedo had been the seat of the executive gov- 
ernment, but Kyoto was the sacred imperial city. During 
the progress of the revolution, Yedo, being identified with 
the falling cause, became much discredited, and the pop- 
ulation was rapidly diminishing. For the Emperor, after 
centuries of seclusion at Kyoto, to come forth and set up 
his throne at Yedo before the world, was a token that 
a new era had indeed begun. To emphasize the change, 
the name of the city was changed to Tokyo (meaning 
Eastern Capital). The Emperor entered it in state on 
November 26, 1868. 

6. The End of Feudalism. — Then followed a still more 
remarkable phase of the Revolution, It was made clear 
to the victorious daimyos, under the influence of the men 
who had seen Western civilization, that the weak point in 

5 



66 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

the Japanese polity was their own feudal power; that 
semi-independent principalities were an anachronism; 
and that, if the Mikado was to reign over a mighty and 
united empire, a centralized government was essential. 
In the enthusiastic tide of patriotism personal interests 
were swept aside, and the leading daimyos, to enable their 
country — so said their public manifesto — " to take its 
place side by side with the other countries of the world," 
.voluntarily surrendered the whole of their feudal rights, 
lands, and revenues into the hands of the Imperial Gov- 
ernment, and took the position of private gentlemen. 
Their retainers were exhorted to give their entire alle- 
giance directly to the Emperor, and the clans became 
absorbed in the nation. In the very same year that the 
petty kings and princes of Germany crowned King Will- 
iam of Prussia Emperor at Versailles, the princes and 
nobles of Japan assembled in solemn council at Tokyo, 
and bowed their heads in submission to the Mikado as his 
Prime Minister read out the Imperial decree abolishing 
feudalism. Truly, it was a wonderful spectacle. 

Some writers, however, have rather overdrawn the 
picture. In many of the clans the power of the daimyos 
had passed into the hands of their leading retainers. The 
change tended to increase the importance of these retain- 
ers, and in many cases it was they who had most influence 
in bringing about the resignation of their masters. To 
the latter the change did not at first mean so much as 
might be supposed. In public estimation they were still 
looked upon as chiefs to be honored by their old retainers 
and reverenced by the peasantry. The most efficient be- 
came governors, under the Imperial Government, of the 
provinces formerly their feudal domains. Life pensions, 
afterward redeemed by government bonds, were granted 
to them and their retainers, a heavy burden being thus im- 
posed upon the finances of the country. 



VIII 
New Japan 

1. Changed Attitude toward Western Civilization. — 

I. Employment of Foreign Instructors. — The restoration 
of power to the Emperor was accompanied by a great 
change in the attitude of the nation toward Western ideas. 
The country reaHzed that during its long isolation it had 
fallen behind the nations of the West. For a time, at least, 
it was necessary to become the pupil of those who had 
been called barbarians. Some thought that this tutelage 
need last only until they had sufficiently learned the mili- 
tary arts of Europe to drive the foreigners from the sacred 
soil of Japan. Others were more far-sighted and desired 
their country to receive all that the West could teach. 
The new government invited foreigners to come and give 
the needed instruction. Europeans and Americans were 
employed to drill the army, open mines, and establish 
new industries. Others became teachers of language and 
science. 

2. Changes Introduced. — After the abolition of feudal- 
ism the changes proceeded at a greatly accelerated rate. 
The year 1872 is memorable in the annals of Japan as 
a year of extraordinary progress. The Army, Navy, and 
Civil Service were entirely reconstructed ; the Imperial 
Mint at Osaka was opened and a new coinage introduced ; 
the Educational Department, established in 1871, largely 
extended its operations under an enlightened minister, 
and a University was established at Tokyo; the Post 
Office was organized, runners being employed who, by 
connections, could cover 125 miles a day; an Industrial 
Exhibition was held in the sacred city of Kyoto ; and, on 
June 1 2th, the first railway in Japan was opened, from 
Tokyo to Yokohama, a distance of eighteen miles. 

Nor were the changes all material in character. Many 

67 



68 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

moral reforms were inaugurated. The eta, the pariahs 
of Japan, were admitted to citizenship ; the two-sworded 
men lost their exclusive privileges ; important regula- 
tions relating to marriage were framed ; and, above all, 
a move was made toward the toleration of Christianity, 
of which more hereafter. On June 28th, the young Em- 
peror set out on a tour of inspection through his domin- 
ions. On New Year's day of 1873 the calendar of the 
Western world was adopted, the years, however, being 
reckoned from the traditional accession of the first Mi- 
kado, or from the new period inaugurated at the Revolu- 
tion and called Meiji, so that 1873 was the year 2533 
of the Empire and the 6th of Meiji. 

3. An Embassy Sent to the West. — Meanwhile, in De- 
cember, 1 87 1, Japan ratified her entrance into the comity 
of nations by sending to America and Europe an embassy 
of nobles and ministers of high rank. It was headed by 
Iwakura, the Alinister of Foreign Affairs and one of the 
most enlightened men of the progressive party. Though 
the Shogunate had sent its representatives abroad, this 
was the first Imperial embassy to the West. It failed to 
obtain a desired revision of the treaties, but many things 
were learned in Western lands that had a great influence 
upon the future of Japan. 

II. Later Changes — i. Political — The last quarter of 
a century has been a period of great progress. In the 
government established immediately after the Revolution 
of 1868 the supreme legislative and executive power had 
been vested in the Privy Council, wdiich, besides the Em- 
peror, consisted of three chief Ministers of State and a 
number of Privy Councillors. Immediately subordinated 
to the Privy Council were the Ministries or Departments 
of State. This was only a transition government; for, 
as already noted, when the Emperor assumed the reins of 
power, he solemnly promised that " a deliberative assem- 
l:>ly should be formed " and all measures decided by pub- 
lic opinion. The first steps in this direction were taken 
in 1875 by creatii:fcg a deliberative assembly composed of 
the governors of provinces, who were to consult and ad- 
vise on measures relating to administrative matters of 
general application, and by establishing a House of Sen- 
ators to discuss and decide upon measures of new legis- 
lation or for the revision of existing laws. 



NEW JAPAN 6g 

There was a still more decided onward movement in 
1877, when provincial representative assemblies were 
called into existence. The discussion of questions of local 
taxation and of matters of local interest to be pressed upon 
the central government did much to make the people con- 
scious of their power, to show them the value of represen- 
tative government, and to educate them for it. The press, 
platform, and debating club, both before and since, con- 
tributed toward forming pubhc opinion on the subject; 
and in December, 1881, the Emperor, yielding to its press- 
ure, definitely promised to establish a Parliament in 1890. 
In 1884 the system of nobility was modified to suit the 
altered circumstances of the country, and many who had 
rendered distinguished service were made marquises, vis- 
counts, barons, etc. Thus the way was prepared for form- 
ing a House of Peers in 1890. 

In anticipation of the coming change, the government 
was reorganized in December, 1885. This was no mere 
redistribution of offices, but a complete reconstruction 
of the governmental system. Not only were men of the 
old court party removed from office and young men edu- 
cated abroad called to fill the highest posts, but '* the 
triple Premiership, Privy Council, and Ministries " were 
abolished, a Cabinet, formed after European models, tak- 
ing their place. 

In 1889 the Emperor granted a written Constitution 
to the people, and the first Parliament met in 1890. The 
last step taken in this path of political progress was in 
1898, when the principle of the Cabinet's responsibility 
to the Parliament was acknowledged. 

2. Educational, Material, and Social Changes. — Prog- 
ress has not been confined to methods of government. 
There has been a great intellectual awakening. The news- 
paper press has gone on developing in intelligence and 
power in spite of the stringent regulations that existed 
for several years and led to the imprisonment of so many 
persons that it is said some periodicals employed a man 
as nominal editor whose only duty was to go to prison 
whenever an indiscreet utterance of the journal made this 
necessary. These press laws have now been repealed. In 
1894 there were 814 periodicals, with a circulation for the 
year of 357,735,426. The fact that 518 new serial publi- 



JO JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

cations appeared and 506 ceased publication during that 
year shows how short-Hved are most of the periodicals. 
During 1894, 8,962 books in single volumes and 18,831 
numbers of serial works were published. Education has 
made rapid strides. The Massachusetts system of public 
schools was adopted as a model for Japan, but has been 
somewhat modified, among other things a fee being col- 
lected from the pupils. There were, in 1894, 24,046 pri- 
mary schools, eighty-four " ordinary middle " schools, 
seven higher schools, and one university. A second uni- 
versity has since been established. There are also many 
technical schools under the care of the government, and 
numerous private schools of various grades. 

Reference has already been made to the railroads, 
steamships, and telegraphs of the country. ' Manufactures 
of various kinds have been introduced. Many new forms 
of industry were at first inaugurated by the government 
or aided by it, but there is now little need for such foster- 
ing care. 

The social changes that have grown out of contact with 
Western nations are^too numerous for mention. They 
have been felt in almost every department of life. Fifteen 
years ago the country was in the midst of a great wave 
of enthusiasm for the introduction of Western customs. 
Officials and men of wealth adopted the European dress, 
and their wives began to do the same. This outward 
change was fostered by the government, and partly for 
political reasons, it being said that, so long as the Jap- 
anese retained their national costume, they were treated 
by foreigners as Asiatics, but the adoption of the Euro- 
pean dress led to the wearers being treated as equals, 
and thus it would be easier to induce Western nations to 
consent to such a revision of treaties as was desired by 
the Japanese. Dancing in foreign style, balls, concerts, 
dramatic entertainments were taken up by fashionable 
people. 

There soon came a reaction. The men had found the 
European garments so much more convenient that they 
were retained, but the women laid aside the bonnet, the 
dress, and the tight shoes, that they might resume the 
national costume; and the foreign amusements and ac- 
complishments that had once been sought with so much 



NEW JAPAN yi 

avidity now fell into disfavor. In many particulars the 
movement for rejecting foreign customs triumphed for 
awhile, but probably there has been no time when, con- 
sciously or unconsciously, the Japanese have not been 
vielding to influences that are affecting their modes of 
life. 

One instance of accepting the customs of Christendom 
was the adoption of Sunday as a day of rest in govern- 
ment offices and schools. This change from an old sys- 
tem, by which one day in five was to some extent a holi- 
day, was made in 1876, because many Europeans engaged 
in various departments refused, from whatever motives, 
to work on Sundays. The holiday is not observed by many 
business houses, but the freedom of officials, teachers, and 
students on that day has been a help to Christian work. 

III. The Satsuma Rebellion — The progress of which 
we have been speaking has not been effected without diffi- 
culty and turmoil. Disaffection repeatedly showed itself 
among the samurai after they were dispossessed of their 
privileges, and more than once open insurrection broke 
out. The Satsuma Rebellion of 1877, especially, was a 
most serious affair, and demands a brief notice. 

1. Satsuma. — Satsuma is in the southern part of Kyu- 
shu. Its daimyo was the most powerful, and almost the 
richest, of the feudal chiefs, and certainly the most inde- 
pendent. The de facto chief, Shimazu Saburo, who had 
acted for his son, the nominal head of the clan, but a 
minor, since 1858, played a leading part in the Revolution. 
It was he whose retainers killed Mr. Richardson in 1862 ; 
it was he whose city, Kagoshima, was bombarded by the 
English ; it was he who led the attack on the Shogunate. 
Among his leading retainers were Saigo and Okubo, who, 
under the new government of the Emperor, became re- 
spectively Commander-in-chief and Minister of Finance. 

2. Disaffection of the Satsuma Men. — Within a year 
after the Revolution divergencies of opinion began to 
appear in the Cabinet. The Prime Minister and Vice- 
Prime Minister, Sanjo and Iwakura, headed the progres- 
sive party, and were supported by Okubo and other Sat- 
suma men; while Shimazu — who held no post, but had 
great influence — and Saigo were unwilling to go farther 
than they had already gone, and exhibited reactionary 



72 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

tendencies. In particular, the two latter advocated the 
old rights of the samurai and endeavored, in 1873, to force 
Japan into a war with Korea, hoping that by gaining mili- 
tary glory the two-sworded men would recover their for- 
mer pre-eminence. Iwakura and Okubo, having been in 
Europe and America, had learned the advantages of peace, 
and their views prevailed in the government, although, 
as a kind of sop to the discontented samurai, an expedition 
was undertaken in 1874 to Formosa, to punish the people 
of that island for some outrages on shipwrecked Japanese. 
Saigo retired from the ministry, and Shimazu presented 
to the Emperor a solemn protest against twenty specified 
innovations contrary to national usage, one of which was 
'* the engagement of foreigners for the service of the 
state, and the adoption of their ideas," and another, " the 
non-prohibition of the extension of evil doctrines " — 
i.e., Christianity. No attention was paid to this memorial, 
and when, in 1876, the carrying of two swords was for- 
bidden, Shimazu acknowledged the impossibility of real- 
izing his dream, and retired from the political arena. 

3. The Rebellion. — Saigo was not so easily overcome. 
In view of a possible contest, he and his followers carried 
on the manufacture of arms at Kagoshima on their own 
account, and gradually perfected a military organization 
for the overthrow of the government, all being done nom- 
inally for the Emperor, though in avowed opposition to 
his ministers. At length, in February, 1877, civil war 
broke out. A desperate conflict ensued, which desolated 
Kyushu for seven months. It ended in the defeat of 
Saigo. On September 24th he and the remnant of his 
personal followers were surrounded and overpowered. 
He was one of the first to fall wounded to the ground, 
when one of his lieutenants, true to the ancient custom 
of Japan, cut ofif his chief's head with a single blow of his 
heavy sword, and then slew himself by hara-kiri. The 
suppression of the rebellion greatly strengthened the gov- 
ernment, but it did not give universal satisfaction. Thou- 
sands of people visited the grave of Saigo, and a popular 
belief at the time of his death was that his spirit had taken 
up its^abode in the planet Mars, while those of his follow- 
ers inhabited a new race of frogs which was said to have 
appeared in Kyushu. 



NEW JAPAN 73 

IV. The War with China. — i. The decisive victory 
gained in the war with China during 1894-5 has raised 
Japan to a new position among the nations of the East. 
The contest arose from China's unwillingness to acknowl- 
edge the independence of Korea, and her alleged violation 
of agreements that had been made with Japan concerning 
that kingdom. Though Japan was victorious, the com- 
bined interference of Russia, France, and Germany pre- 
vented her from retaining the territory that she had con- 
quered in Northern China. She received instead a large 
indemnity, and was allowed to keep Formosa, which had 
been occupied by Japanese soldiers. The necessity of 
yielding to the demands of the three European nations 
was felt by the Japanese to be a humiliation, and there 
was much bitterness, especially against Russia. 

2. Some of the results of the war as regards Japan 
itself are thus described by Dr. D. C. Greene : " It gave 
a new impetus to almost every department of secular hfe. 
It was natural, in view of the large indemnity secured 
from China, that the army and navy should be pushed 
forward as rapidly as possible, in order that she might 
claim to be the dominant power in Eastern Asia. This 
undue emphasis is much to be regretted, because it can 
hardly fail to stimulate the military spirit to a degree not 
merely harmful to Japan, but also to the world. Still, it 
cannot be denied that the extraordinary development of 
the national consciousness, which is directly traceable to 
the experiences of the past three years, has been, on the 
whole, healthful. Some of its manifestations have been 
unhappy, and some of the claims put forth have been 
extravagant; but there has been abundant evidence of 
vigorous Hfe, which we may well trust to assert itself 
against the more or less morbid features incident to the 
excitements of these stirring times." 

V. Revision of the Treaties — i. Japan had for years 
attempted to gain the consent of Western nations for a 
revision of treaties. Those that had been made in 1858 
and the following years restricted the rights of Japan in 
regard to the duties imposed on imports, and also provided 
for a system of extra-territoriality, by which foreigners 
charged with crime were tried in the consular courts of 
their own nationality. The different Ministers for For- 



74 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

eign Affairs had labored hard to effect a change; long 
conferences were held with the representatives of Western 
nations ; various drafts were prepared ; " treaty revi- 
sion " was for years a subject for discussion in news- 
papers, chambers of commerce, and missionary confer- 
ences, and several cabinets went out of office because of 
failure to bring about what the nation desired. 

2. The United States had for a long time been ready 
to grant a revision, but the consent of all the nations was 
necessary. At last, in 1894, the country was rejoiced 
to learn that a treaty had been signed with Great Britain, 
which granted, after July, 1899, judicial and tariff auton- 
omy to Japan. Upon the other hand, British subjects 
were, after the same date, to be permitted to travel, reside, 
and carry on business in the interior. Similar treaties 
have since been negotiated with other nations, so that 
July, 1899, bids fair to mark an important date in Japan's 
history. At that time she finds herself received as an equal 
into the sisterhood of nations. 



IX 

Modern Missions 

1. Interest concerning Japan before Its Re-opening. — 

Even before Japan entered into treaty relations with 
Western lands, the eyes of those who were interested in 
the extension of Christianity turned toward this mysteri- 
ous country and longed to see its closed doors thrown open 
for the entrance of the Gospel. 

A. Among Roman Catholics. — i. Ecclesiastical Ap- 
pointments. — The Roman Catholic Church could not for- 
get the past successes of its missionaries nor cease to pray 
that the land consecrated by the blood of so many martyrs 
might witness a renewal of the great triumphs won by the 
Jesuits. On some of the missionary bishops sent to Asi- 
atic countries by the Societe des Missions Etrangeres, the 
greatest foreign missionary society of the Roman Church, 
was bestowed the barren title of Vicars Apostolic of Japan, 

2. Sidotti. — An Italian Jesuit, named Sidotti, who, as 
a youth, had become intensely interested in Japan, resolved 
that he would attempt to enter the country. Going to 
Manila, he spent some time in studying the Japanese lan- 
guage. At last, in 1709, he persuaded a captain to take 
him to the southern part of Kyushu, where he was set 
ashore by a small boat and then left alone — one man 
against a nation. He was soon discovered, and, though 
his pronunciation was very imperfect, managed to hold 
some slight communication with the officers who arrested 
him. He was finally taken to Yedo, where he was put 
under the care of an official, who closely questioned him 
concerning foreign lands and his object in coming to 
Japan. In one of the buildings connected with his place 
of confinement lived an old man and woman who had 
long before been arrested as Christians and had recanted. 
Sidotti had the joy of leading them to a renewal of their 

75 



'J^ JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

faith; but, though he Hved on as a prisoner for many 
years, probably dying a natural death, there is nothing 
to show that there were other visible results of his self- 
sacrificing devotion. 

3. Missionaries in Loochoo. — The interest of Roman 
Catholics was freshly aroused in 1831, when twenty Jap- 
anese sailors, wrecked on the shores of the Philippine 
Islands, were found to have in their possession Christian 
medals, which they regarded with great reverence, saying 
that they had been handed down to them from their an- 
cestors. Not far from this time partially successful at- 
tempts were made to send catechists to Japan, but it is 
not known whether they were able to accomplish any- 
thing. In 1844 a naval vessel of France, which, like other 
European nations, was seeking a way to open Japan, car- 
ried to Loochoo a priest named M. Forcade and a native 
catechist. Negotiations were opened with the King, who 
permitted them to remain. They were, however, kept 
under constant surveillance. " I was barely allowed," 
wrote M. Forcade, " to take a Httle exercise on the sand 
or mud by the seashore, and even then I might not go 
alone. I was surrounded by the inevitable mandarins, 
preceded by satellites armed with bamboos to strike the 
poor people and drive off any passers-by, which was nat- 
urally calculated to render me an object of odium." The 
Japanese Government, which claimed authority over 
Loochoo, demanded that the missionaries be put to death, 
and it is said to be largely owing to the representations 
of the Dutch resident at Nagasaki that they were unmo- 
lested. Other priests joined them, and, to some extent, 
they were less hampered, *' but, as regards evangelical 
work, all they could possibly achieve was to baptize a few 
babies at the point of death and also a few old people." 

B. Among Protestants. — i. Contributions for Work 
in Japan. — Protestants were not unmindful of the distant 
land. One act of faith on the part of Christians is worthy 
of record. About the year 1827 a Christian merchant, 
residing in Brookline, Mass., invited a few friends to 
meet at his house that they might pray for the conversion 
of the world. At the first meeting, when it was proposed 
that a contribution be made, the question arose about how 
the money should be used. On the table was a Japanese 



MODERN MISSIONS JJ 

basket that had been brought from the East by one of 
the merchant's ships. Taking it in his hand, he proposed 
that they contribute money for missionary work in Japan. 
The proposal, which seems strange when we remember 
what was then the condition of Japan, was adopted. In 
a few years over $600 had been collected, and by the time 
the American Board commenced its work in Japan this 
money, which had been committed to its care, amounted, 
with accrued interest, to over $4,000. 

2. Dr. Bettelheini in Loochoo. — Kindness which had 
been shown by the natives of Loochoo to shipwrecked sail- 
ors led certain officers of the British navy to feel such an 
interest in their behalf that they formed among themselves 
a missionary society for the purpose of sending the Gospel 
to Loochoo. Dr. Bettelheim, a converted Jew, a physi- 
cian, reached the Islands in 1846. He met with opposition 
similar to that encountered by the French priests. Though 
at first the people gathered about him and gladly received 
his tracts, the officers caused the latter to be gathered up 
and returned to him. After awhile they compelled people 
to leave the streets through which he passed, and to shut 
up their houses so as to prevent his entrance. At least 
three persons are said to have been baptized by him, not- 
withstanding the difficulties under which he labored. 

3. Translation of the Scriptures. — Though the living 
preacher was excluded from Japan, it was hoped that 
some way might be found for the entrance of the printed 
Word. Through the knowledge of the language obtained 
by the Dutch merchants and from shipwrecked sailors, 
something could be learned that made it possible to pre- 
pare very imperfect translations of portions of the Bible. 
Dr. S. Wells Williams says of some of the Japanese who 
were brought back to Macao after the unsuccessful ex- 
pedition of the Morrison : " Two remained with Mr. 
Giitzlaff for many years, and two worked in my printing 
office at Macao. These four aided us in getting some 
knowledge of their language, so that between us the books 
of Genesis and Matthew, and the Gospel and Epistles of 
John were done into Japanese for their instruction." Dr. 
Bettelheim also attempted similar work, and some of it 
was printed. 

4. The American Expedition. — Though Commodore 



78 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

Perry's errand was political and commercial, he was not 
oblivious to the fact that a successful accompHshment of 
his task would result in opening the country to Chris- 
tianity. The first Sunday spent in Japanese waters was 
a time when the people were taught something of our 
religion. They had been very curious to inspect the 
strange vessels that had so suddenly come among them. 
Large numbers of sightseers had been permitted to come 
on deck in order to look about. On Sunday morning 
those who came were told that the day was one that Amer-" 
icans used for the worship of God, and that, in order to 
preserve due quiet, no visitors would be received. When 
the time came for morning service Commodore Perry 
caused the old Scotch version of the -One Hundredth 
Psalm to be sung: 

All people that on earth do dwell, 

Sing to the Lord with joyful voice ; 
Him serve with mirth. His praise forth tell, 

Come ye before Him and rejoice. 

It was America's summons to the hermit nation that, in 
coming out from its long seclusion, it should receive not 
merely the material civilization of the West, but also that 
it should learn to know and worship the God of Nations. 
Among those connected with Perry's Expedition were 
some who earnestly hoped that it might prepare the way 
for missions, and they improved all opportunities to learn 
what they could of the land in order that they might know 
what could be done for its evangelization. Dr. S. Wells 
Williams, who had been a missionary in China, was one 
of the interpreters of the Expedition. As we have already 
seen, he had before this attempted to translate portions 
of the Scriptures into Japanese. Among the marines was 
a young man who had enlisted for the purpose of learn- 
ing about the land where he hoped that he could after- 
ward engage in religious work. His good behavior and 
a special service rendered while the Expedition was at 
the Loochoo Islands won from Commodore Perry extra 
opportunities to go on shore. The knowledge thus gained 
he afterward utilized in a way that led to the establish- 
ment of the American Baptist Free Missionary Society. 
II. Missionary Work — When friends of missions 



MODERN MISSIONS 79 

learned that Commodore Perry had succeeded in negotiat- 
ing a treaty with Japan, new interest was aroused in the 
evangeHzation of the land. It was as yet, however, im- 
possible to commence any direct work, since the Ameri- 
can treaty and those soon after secured by other nations 
did not permit the residence of foreigners. Though, after 
the treaties of 1858, Protestant missionaries were the fore- 
most to enter the country, it will be more convenient to 
consider first the work done by others. 

A. Roman Catholic Missions. — i. The First Mis- 
sionaries. — As soon as the French had negotiated a treaty 
with Japan, priests were sent to the country, nominally 
to attend to the spiritual wants of European Catholics. 
Chapels were erected at Yokohama and Nagasaki. That 
of the former city was dedicated in January, 1862, and 
was daily visited by many Japanese drawn thither by 
curiosity. To these visitors the priests tried to explain 
the meaning of the pictures upon the walls. The officials 
soon took notice of these occurrences and arrested about 
fifty of the people who had visited the chapel. One of 
the priests wrote : *' Immediately the panic spreads in 
all directions, the news of the persecution is confirmed, 
and the strangers in the land are everywhere agitated. 
Our church is deserted." When the French representa- 
tive called the attention of the Governor to these events, 
the latter replied that the Japanese must suffer the penalty 
for violating the law of the country. It was in the same 
year, 1862, that Pius IX. proclaimed the canonization of 
the " Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan," who had been cruci- 
fied at Nagasaki in 1597. 

2. The Discovery of Christians. — In 1865 a fine church 
was dedicated, in Nagasaki, to the " Twenty-six Martyrs." 
It was in the charge of M. Petit jean, a priest who had 
spent several years in Loochoo, and from thence come to 
Japan. It was in this church that there occurred a strik- 
ing event, which filled his heart with joy, encouraged the 
Roman Catholic workers, and was followed by momen- 
tous consequences. The story is best told in his own 
words : 

Scarce a month had elapsed since the benediction of the 
church at Nagasaki. On March 17, 1865, about half-past twelve, 
some fifteen persons were standing at the church door. Urged, 



80 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

no doubt, by my angel guardian, I went up and opened the door. 
I had scarce time to say a Pater when three women, between fifty 
and sixty years of age, knelt down beside me and said, in a low 
voice, placmg their hands upon their hearts : 

" The hearts of all of us here do not differ from yours." 
" Indeed ! " I exclaimed. *' Whence do you come ? " 
They mentioned their village, adding: '"At home every- 
body is the same as we are!" 

Blessed be Thou, O, my God i for all the happiness which 
filled my soul. What a compensation for five years of barren 
ministry ! 

The women continued to talk with him in a way that 
showed they had considerable knowledge of Christianity, 
and they had many inquiries to make of the priest. 

In the midst of this volley of questions footsteps were heard ; 
immediately all dispersed. But soon as the new-comers were 
recognized, all returned, laughing at their fright. 

'* They are people of our village," they said. " They have the 
same hearts as we have." 

However, we had to separate for fear of awakening the suspi- 
cions of the officials whose visit I feared. On Maundy Thursday 
and Good Friday, April 13 and 14, 1,500 people visited the 
church of Nagasaki. The presbytery was invaded ; the faithful 
took the opportunity to satisfy their devotion before the crucifix 
and the statues of Our Lady. During the early days of May the 
missioners learned of the existence of 2,500 Christians scattered 
in the neighborhood of the city. On May 15 there arrived dele- 
gates from an island not very far from here. A.fter a short inter- 
view we dismissed them, detaining only the Catechist and the 
leader of the pilgrimage. The Catechist, named Peter, gave us 
the most valuable information. Let me first say that his formula 
for baptism does not differ at all from ours, and that he pro- 
nounces it very distinctly. He declares that there are many 
Christians left up and down all over Japan. He cited in particu- 
lar one place where there are over 1,000 Christian families. 

3. Persecutions. — The coming of so many people to 
the church and the reports of what was happening soon 
attracted the attention of the officials. It was not long 
before arrests were made. The persecution which then 
commenced reached its height in 1869. Some of the 
Christians were tortured, beaten, or cast into prison. 
Thousands were sent into exile, being scattered among 
different provinces, and in many cases being forced to 
hard labor in the mines. '' It is calculated," says a Ro- 



MODERN MISSIONS 8 1 

man Catholic writer, '' that, between 1868 and 1873, from 
6,000 to 8,000 Christians were torn from their families, 
deported, and subjected to cruel tortures, so that nearly 
2,000 died in prison." 

Though European and American sea-captains were 
willing, for the sake of gain, to transport these unfortu- 
nate people to their places of exile, the official represen- 
tatives of Western nations. Catholic and Protestant alike, 
united in protesting against what was being done, saying 
that Japan, in punishing people simply because of their 
belief in Christianity, was throwing dishonor upon the 
Christian nations with which Japan had made treaties. 
At first these protests were of no avail. Mr. Long, who 
was then United States Minister, says : " After all our 
arguments had been used we were finally told by Mr. Iwa- 
kura that this government rested upon the Shinto faith, 
which taught the divinity of the Mikado, that the propa- 
gation of the Christian faith and religion tended to dispel 
that belief, and that consequently it was the resolve of this 
government to resist its propagation as they would resist 
the advance of an invading army." The continued pro- 
tests of the ministers, aided by the course of events, at 
last led to a cessation of these persecutions, and, in 1872, 
many of the Christian prisoners were set at liberty. It 
will thus be seen that, on the return of these exiles to their 
homes, and with the discovery of other Christian com- 
munities, the Roman Catholics had several thousand be- 
lievers at the time when the baptized converts to the Prot- 
estant faith numbered only ten. It was not until 1873 
that all the prisoners were freed. 

4. Later History. — Roman Catholicism has had to con- 
tend against the prejudices aroused by remembrance of 
the troubles of three centuries ago — prejudices that have 
existed against all forms of Christianity, though not felt 
so much by Protestants and the Russo-Greek Church. 
Nevertheless, it has had a considerable growth. Most 
of the missionaries are French. Much has been done by 
gathering children into orphanages and other charitable 
institutions, where they can be educated in the Catholic 
faith. Many children of unbelievers are baptized when 
at the point of death, it being believed that such baptism 
insures their salvation. The rite may be administered by 
6 



82 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

Others than ecclesiastics. The Mission publishes a number 
of tracts and books, many of them being bitter attacks on 
Protestantism. Recently it has published a translation 
of the Vulgate version of the Bible, and it is somewhat 
remarkable that the translator is a Protestant Japanese. 

The statistics of the Roman Catholic Church for 1898 
are as follows : Archbishop, i ; Bishops, 3 ; European 
Missionaries, 106; Japanese Priests, 26; Japanese Cate- 
chists, 284; Marianite Friars — European 28, Japanese 
2 ; Cistercian Brothers, 23 ; European Sisters, 102 ; Jap- 
anese Sisters, 20; Congregations, 246; Baptisms of In- 
fants having Christian parents, 1,630; of those having 
heathen parents, 1,279 ; Adult Baptisms, 2,073 > Total Ad- 
herents, 53,427. In comparing the last item with the 
Protestant church-membership (40,981), it must be re- 
membered that in most cases the latter does not include 
children. 

B. The Russo-Greek Mission. — i. In 1861 there 
came to Japan, as Chaplain to the Russian Consulate at 
Hakodate, a remarkable man who has since had an im- 
portant part in the religious history of the land. He is 
now known as Bishop Nicolai. For several years he 
made no attempt to preach to the Japanese, but devoted 
himself to a careful study of the language. A Buddhist 
priest, who came to revile the Russian chaplain, was led 
to study Christianity, and in 1866 he was baptized as 
Father Nicolai's first convert. Three years later a physi- 
cian was baptized. Returning in 1869 to Russia, Nicolai 
induced the Holy Synod to establish a mission in Japan. 
In 1 87 1 he came to Tokyo. A man of striking appearance 
and great personal magnetism, he has exerted a wonderful 
powder over those who have come under his influence. At 
no time have there been more than four other missionaries 
associated with him, and at present there are only two; 
but many native assistants have been thoroughly trained 
and sent to different parts of the land. A few of them 
have been educated in Russia. 

2. In the heart of Tokyo there has been erected a splen- 
did cathedral, the most conspicuous building in the city. 
Some have thought that in erecting such a cathedral 
Bishop Nicolai failed to show his usual wisdom. It has 
certainly aroused much prejudice, especially at times 



MODERN MISSIONS 83 

when Russia has been suspected of having poHtical rea- 
sons for extending the influence of its national church. 
The Russian Church in Japan uses the translation of the 
Scriptures circulated by the American and British Bible 
Societies, although it does not allow its followers to have 
Christian fellowship with other churches. From Tokyo 
the missionaries have extended their operations into 225 
out-stations, where 169 churches are found. It is signifi- 
cant that this Church should have so emphasized work 
among women and children. This has been very effec- 
tively done through ninety-four Japanese Bible women. 
In 1898 a church membership of 24,531 was reported, 
including, doubtless, a large number of children. 

C. Protestant Missions. — i. The First Missionaries. 
— Protestant missionaries were as eager as those of Rome 
to take advantage of the treaties that opened the country 
to foreign residence, and to the Protestant Episcopal 
Church of America belongs the high honor of being the 
first to enter Japan. On May 2, 1859, two months before 
the time set by the treaties. Rev. J. Liggins arrived at 
Nagasaki, where he was joined a month later by Rev. C. 
M7 (afterward Bishop) Williams. Both had been mis- 
sionaries in China of the Protestant Episcopal Church of 
the United States. In October, Dr. J. C. Hepburn, a med- 
ical missionary of the American Presbyterian Board, land- 
ed in Kanagawa ; and in November, Rev. S. R. Brown and 
D. B. SirMons, M.D., both of the Reformed ORurch in 
America, "reached Nagasaki, where they were joined a 
month later by Rev. (?*F. Verbeck, of the same Church. 
In April of the next year camfe Rev. J. Goble, who had 
been with Perry's Expedition and was now sent by the 
American Baptist Free Missionary Society. ^ Thus, within 
a year from the opening of the treaty-ports to foreign 
residence, four American societies were represented by 
five ordained and two medical missionaries.? 

2. Diificulties of the Early Years. — The pioneer mis- 
sionaries were in circumstances of no little discourage- 
ment and difficulty for several years after they entered 
upon their work. The government viewed them with 
suspicion ; the people, though by no means hostile, were 
distant and timid, and all classes dreaded Christianity as 
a pestilential creed whose introduction would bring mani- 



84 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

fold evils upon the country. ''Official spies were frequent- 
ly sent to the missionaries, ostensibly to make friends with 
them, but really to discover what object these unofficial 
and non-trading foreigners had in coming to Japan. One 
man afterward confessed that he became Dr. Hepburn's 
teacher in the hope of finding a good opportunity to assas- 
sinate him. Even in private the greatest caution was nec- 
essary in dealing with visitors; for, so much were the 
consequences of being suspected of favoring Christianity 
feared, that v;henever the subject was mentioned to a Jap- 
anese he would involuntarily put his hand to his throat 
as a token of the danger to which the introduction of such 
a subject exposed him. Some young men who, in these 
early days came to a missionary to learn a little English, 
purchased copies of a book called "' The Christian Read- 
er," and at once erased the word " Christian " from the 
title page and cover, for fear it should be noticed by others 
and bring them into trouble. 

3. Opportunities for Usefulness. — Even then, when 
open missionary work was an impossibility and any at- 
tempt to engage in it would have invited disaster, the 
personal influence of the missionaries was making itself 
felt, and the disposal by them of numerous copies of the 
Holy Scriptures and other books in Chinese, which were 
imported for circulation among the educated classes — 
who studied and read Chinese as a classical language — • 
carried the light of Christian truth to places far away 
from the treaty ports. ^Almost from the first there were 
a few earnest, though timid, seekers after truth, and every 
year their number increased. A door of usefulness was 
also opened to the missionaries by the desire of many 
young men to receive instruction in the English language. 
In 1 86 1 the Shogun's court itself sent several persons to 
be taught. ]^Iany who have since held high offices of 
state or other places of influence were pupils of the mis- 
sionaries. They not only learned to read English, but 
some of them became Christians ; while others, who did 
not accept the religion of their instructors, received ideas 
in regard to morals, business, education, and the science 
of government that aft'ected their whole tone of thought 
and reappeared in many of the reforms that they after- 
ward instituted. 



MODERN MISSIONS 8$ 

4. A Call for Prayer. — In January, 1866, " a little band 
of believers of various nationalities " residing in Yoko- 
hama, who had been observing the Week of Prayer, issued 
" an address to God's people throughout the world, asking 
their prayers in a special manner for Japan." It men- 
tioned some favorable changes in the circumstances of 
the Missions ; that the government no longer sent spies 
to watch the missionaries, but began to repose confidence 
in them by employing them as school-teachers ; that in 
the school-rooms and in the houses of the missionaries the 
intelligent young men who came to learn English mani- 
fested a readiness to talk about Christianity, and no longer 
uttered the name of Jesus with bated breath ; and that 
some of them went daily to the missionaries' houses *' in 
groups of from two or three to six or seven, to read the 
English Bible, preferring this to the study of school- 
books." 

5. The Laws against Christianity. — Whatever change 
of opinion may have been discernible in some quarters, 
the law against Christianity was still unrepealed, and the 
Emperor's government seemed bent on maintaining it in 
its integrity. Soon after the Revolution in 1868 the laws 
of the Shogunate, which had been posted on the notice- 
boards in every town and village, were replaced by those 
of the new Imperial Government. There was, however, 
little change in the enactment concerning Christianity — 
" The evil sect, called Christian, is strictly prohibited. 
Suspicious persons should be reported to the proper of- 
ficers, and rewards will be given." A few months later 
a further decree appeared : " With respect to the Chris- 
tian sect, the existing prohibition must be strictly ob- 
served. Evil sects are strictly prohibited." 

6. Persecutions. — That these laws were not meaning- 
less was shown, as already described, by the treatment of 
the Roman Catholic Christians discovered in Kyushu. 
Other proofs of the government's hatred of Christianity 
were given. The man employed by Rev. Mr. Ensor as 
a teacher was arrested in 1870, and remained in prison 
for two and a half years. The next year Rev. O. H. Gu- 
lick's teacher was arrested, together with the latter's wife. 
For a long time it was impossible to find where they had 
been sent. The teacher died a few months later in prison. 



So JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

In 1872 a person who assisted Mr. Gulick to rent a house 
in Kyoto was arrested and charged with the oft'ence of 
trying to have the city opened to Christianity. He and 
his family were imprisoned in his own house. 

7. Reinoi'al of the Edicts against Christianity. — The 
Embassy, headed by Iwakura, which was sent in 1871 to 
America and Europe, saw that the attitude of the Japa- 
nese Government toward Christianity was injuring their 
country in the eyes of Western nations and making it im- 
possible to gain desired concessions. It was in accord- 
ance with the representations made by Iwakura and oth- 
ers that the edicts were wathdraw^n from the notice-boards. 
The action of the government was equivocal. It did not 
repeal the law against Christianity; but, just as the laws 
respecting murder, arson, and robbery remained in force, 
notwithstanding the removal at the same time of the par- 
ticular prohibitions respecting them, so was it with the 
prohibition of Christianity. Indeed, officers were told to 
warn the people against supposing that the law was 
changed because the notices were no longer exhibited as 
formerly. In spite of these explanations, the people soon 
began to regard what had been done as equivalent to a 
repeal of the edicts, and the government, anxious to avoid 
offending the Christian sentiment of Western nations, 
was not averse to such a construction being put on its 
action, and was better able to ignore breaches of the law 
when its existence was less conspicuous. 
-' S. Increasing Toleration. — The central government was 
every year pursuing a more liberal and enlightened pol- 
icy, though local officials were in many cases slow^ to fol- 
low. Ostensibly acting in the interests of public order, 
the latter had numerous opportunities of throwing ob- 
stacles in the way of the open propagation of Christianity, 
and of intimidating or oppressing those who favored it. 
Eventually the views of the party of progress gained such 
ascendancy that all open official opposition ceased and 
toleration became general. Buildings were set apart for 
Christian worship, not only for foreigners, but for na- 
tives, not only at the treaty ports, but in towns and vil- 
lages far removed from them. Little difficulty was ex- 
perienced after 1880 in holding public meetings in the- 
atres and other large buildings. Christian literature was 
exposed for sale and openly circulated by colporteurs. ^ 



MODERN MISSIONS 87 

In 1884 there was a great advance in religious toleration 
by the issue of notifications in regard to registration and 
burial. Until that time every citizen was registered as a 
Buddhist or Shintoist, and difficulties were sometimes 
experienced by Christians who, in removing their resi- 
dences, wished to get their names transferred from the 
register in one place to that in another. A still greater 
difficulty was sometimes experienced in burying the Chris- 
tian dead. In some places, where public cemeteries had 
been established, there was no such trouble, as the ceme- 
teries were open to all, of whatever sect or creed, and 
the employment of a Buddhist or Shinto priest was op- 
tional. In other places it was quite different. In 1875 
two Japanese who had taken part in a Christian funeral 
without Buddhist or Shinto rites at Tokyo were sum- 
moned before one of the courts, severely reprimanded, 
and threatened with a fine. As most of the burial-grounds 
were connected with Buddhist temples and under the con- 
trol of the priesthood, the difficulty was increased by the 
tenacity with which the priests very naturally clung to 
their prescriptive rights and dues. In process of time 
Christian burials were allowed to take place in some of 
the Buddhist burial-grounds with the consent of the priest, 
who received the customary fee, and, to accommodate 
those concerned, went out for the day, leaving the Chris- 
tians free to bury the remains of the departed with their 
own rites. Not all were so obliging. In one place the 
wife of a Christian died and her body remained for several 
days unburied, the priests refusing to allow the interment 
until the husband would promise to have nothing more 
to do with Christianity. By the notifications just men- 
tioned, all religious distinctions in registration and burial 
were abolished, and provision was made for the establish- 
ment of public cemeteries to be open to all. 

9. Christian Teachers, — Mention has been made of the 
work of the missionaries in connection with the teaching 
of English. There were other teachers who were em- 
ployed by the Japanese to give instruction in schools that 
were established by the chiefs of several clans or after- 
ward by the government. Unquestionably, the toleration 
that so soon obtained was in some degree due to the 
spread, by the instrumentality of some of these teachers, 



88 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

among the governing and literary class, of correct views 
of the high character of the Christian religion. One of 
these gentlemen, Mr. E. W. Clark, in his book, ''Life and 
Adventures in Japan," incidentally gives some interesting 
ghmpses of the exercise of this kind of Christian influence. 
He was engaged as a teacher of science at the city of 
Shizuoka. When he reached Japan from America, he 
found in the agreement he was to sign a clause forbidding 
him to say anything about Christianity. '' It was a great 
dilemma," he says, " for I had spent all my money in 
coming to Japan and getting ready to go into the interior." 
Some of his friends urged him to accept the condition, 
and his Japanese interpreter recommended him to sign 
the agreement and then disregard it. He f^lt that a great 
principle was at stake, and stood firm. He said that unless 
the clause was struck out he must refuse to go. '' It is 
impossible," he added, " for a Christian to dwell three 
years in the midst of a pagan people, and yet keep entire 
silence on the subject nearest his heart." His firmness 
triumphed and the clause was struck out. He began the 
very first Sunday he was in Shizuoka, and conducted a 
Bible-class the whole time he was there. 

Another American teacher in the city of Kumamoto 
commenced to teach a Bible-class in his own house. In 
January, 1876, a number of those who had attended it 
went to a hill near the city. There, as afterward described 
by one of them, '' They made a solemn covenant together 
that, as they had been blessed by God in advance of all 
their countrymen, they would labor to enlighten the dark- 
ness of the Empire by preaching the gospel, even at the 
sacrifice of their lives. They prayed kneeling, and wrote 
an oath-paper, on which they signed and sealed their 
names." A fierce persecution broke out. Students were 
removed from the school to be imprisoned in their homes 
or sent away to distant places. A number of them after 
some time reached Kyoto, where they entered the school 
that had just been established by Joseph Neesima and the 
missionaries of the American Board. After graduation 
they became effective preachers and teachers. Some of 
them continue to be earnest Christian workers. Of others, 
even of some who were apparently among the most de- 
voted, it must with sorrow be recorded that they seem to 



MODERN MISSIONS 89 

have wandered far from the faith that they once pro- 
fessed. Those who knew them in their earUer days can- 
not but pray that they who once led others to the Saviour 
may even yet return to Him whom they in so solemn a 
way promised to serve. 

President Clark of the Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
lege was invited to come to Japan to aid in the establish- 
ment of a similar school at Sapporo, in the island of Yezo. 
He was at first prohibited by the Governor from speaking 
to the students about Christianity or giving Bibles to 
them ; but the prohibition was removed when President 
Clark said that he did not know how to teach ethics satis- 
factorily without the use of the Scriptures. Many of the 
young men became Christians through his influence. 

10. The First Converts. — The first Japanese to receive 
baptism in his own country from a Protestant missionary 
was Yano Riyu, who had been a teacher of the language 
to one of the missionaries since i860. He was baptized 
at his own house in Yokohama in the presence of his fam- 
ily and with their full consent in October, 1864, and short- 
ly afterward died. 

The three who were next baptized had in a strange way 
been led to a knowledge of Christianity. One of them, 
named Wakasa, was an official of high rank, who was sent 
with a force of men to patrol the port of Nagasaki while 
English and French men-of-war were anchored there, a 
few months after Perry had negotiated the American 
treaty. One day he noticed a book floating upon the water 
near the shore and ordered one of the men to get it. None 
of the party could tell what the book was. The curiosity 
of the nobleman was so excited that when the foreign 
ships had departed and he had returned home he sent one 
of his retainers to Nagasaki to find out about the book. 
He thus learned that it was a Dutch Bible. Learning 
that a Chinese version of the same book had been pub- 
lished in Shanghai, he secretly sent a man thither to pur- 
chase a copy. Wakasa, with his younger brother and 
some friends, commenced an earnest study of the volume. 
In 1862 the brother went to Nagasaki, hoping to get from 
the foreigners some aid in understanding the Bible, and 
he there made the acquaintance of Rev. G. F. Verbeck 
of the Reformed Mission. Afterward Wakasa sent an- 



go JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

Other relative to Nagasaki to study English and the Bible. 
This man carried questions and answers back and forth 
between the two places, and in this way the strange Bible 
class was carried on for three years. In 1866 the two 
brothers, with the other relative, went to Nagasaki and 
were baptized. On returning home they reported to their 
feudal lord what they had done. He was inclined to per- 
mit them to do as they pleased, but his superiors, hearing 
of what had happened, ordered that they be punished. 
Little was done, however, except to burn some of the 
books. Wakasa died in 1874. The zeal that he had 
shown for the conversion of his children and friends was 
proved by fruits gathered in later years. 

Other isolated converts were gained from time to time, 
but up to the spring of 1872, a period of nearly thirteen ^ 
years after the arrival of the first Protestant missionaries, ; 
only ten Japanese had received baptism at their hands. 

11. The First Church. — The first Japanese church was 
organized at Yokohama on March 10, 1872, nearly a year 
before the withdrawal of the edicts against Christianity. 
Its first membership embraced nine young men who then 
received baptism and two who had been previously bap- 
tized. It was called " The Church of Christ in Japan." 
The first article of its simple constitution read : " Our 
church does not belong to any sect whatever ; it believes 
only in the name of Christ, in whom all are one; it be- 
lieves that all who take the Bible as their guide and who 
diligently study it are the servants of Christ and our 
brethren. For this reason all believers on earth belong 
to the family of Christ in the bonds of brotherly love." 

12. Results to the End of 18/2. — The years from 1859 
to 1872 formed what has been called the " Period of Prep- 
aration." Though mention has been made of a few events 
that happened at a later date, it will be well to look back 
and see what had been accomplished during this time. 
In addition to the four missionary societies already men- 
tioned, the Church Missionary Society of England and 
the American Board had commenced work in 1869, while, 
in 187 1, the Women's Union Missionary Society of Amer- 
ica entered Yokohama, where it founded, during the next 
year, a school for girls which is known as the " American 
Mission Home." The missionaries had during these years 



MODERN MISSIONS 9 1 

made considerable progress in the language, and also pre- 
pared books, among which should be specially mentioned 
Dr. Hepburn's Dictionary, to facilitate the study of others. 
They had sold many thousand Chinese Bibles and other 
Christian books, had made a beginning in the translation 
of the Bible into Japanese, and issued a few tracts. They 
had engaged in medical and educational work, and had 
gained the respect and confidence of the people about them. 
Above all, they had been the instruments of bringing a 
few persons to an acceptance of Christ, and had seen the 
formation of the first church. 

13. The Period of Popularity. — The year 1873 marked 
the commencement of a new epoch. As has already been 
said, the edicts against Christianity were taken down at 
this time. However the government explained their re- 
moval, the people considered that they no longer needed 
to regard Christianity as a prohibited religion. About 
the same time there came from Mr. Mori Arinori, the 
ambassador in Washington, a draft for a proposed " Re- 
ligious Charter," granting full religious liberty, and also 
a pamphlet in which, while telling what he had seen of 
Protestant Christianity, he said : " The growing influ- 
ence of the Bible is remarkable and makes itself felt every- 
where. The Bible contains an overpowering force of lib- 
erty and justice, guided by the united strength of wisdom 
and goodness." Other influences tended to make the offi- 
cial and educated classes regard religion with more favor. 

There began to spring up a strong desire to adopt West- 
ern customs and ideas. Protestant Christianity, being 
the religion of England and America, was at least worthy 
of attention. It soon became easy to gather audiences to 
listen to preaching. The missionaries had numerous call- 
ers, who came to inquire about machinery, electricity, Eu- 
ropean customs, Christianity, and other things that in the 
minds of the people were closely associated. In a few 
years Christian schools for young men and young women 
became crowded. The movement continued to gain 
strength until, in 1884, some statesmen and public leaders 
began to urge that Christianity be adopted as the national 
religion, one of them proposing that the Emperor at once 
receive baptism. There were large additions to the 
churches, and many were admitted whose mouths uttered 



92 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

devout confessions while their hearts were Httle affected 
by the truth. In looking back upon those days it is easy 
to see that with many persons the Christian reHgion was j 
regarded chiefly as a means of advancing civilization and / 
bringing good to the nation. Japanese preachers and for- 
eign missionaries had much to say of the fruits of Chris- 
tianity as shown in the history and present condition of 
Western lands. An appeal to patriotism was that which 
found the most ready response, and there was a temptation 
to use it too constantly. Statesmen and politicians who 
favored constitutional government and popular rights in- 
vited preachers to hold meetings in the cities where they 
lived, believing that the spread of Christianity would tend 
to advance their ends. 

14. Opposition of the Buddhists. — It must not be sup- 
posed that all this could go on without exciting opposition. 
In some places the churches or the houses of the Chris- 
tians were stoned, while preachers were occasionally as- 
saulted. Buddhist priests held meetings in which they 
denounced Christianity and declared that those who ac- 
cepted it were traitors who wished to deliver their country 
into the hands of foreigners. They formed societies whose 
members promised that they would have nothing to do 
with Christianity. Some went so far as to oppose every- 
thing foreign. One priest travelled about the country 
urging the people not to use kerosene oil, since it came 
from a foreign land, and they ought to be satisfied with 
the light that their fathers had used. Several tracts 
against Christianity were issued by the Buddhists, and 
in some cases foreigners were employed to compose them. 
Colonel Olcott, the American theosophist, who visited 
Japan in 1888, was hailed as a valuable ally and employed 
to give lectures in different parts of the country. This 
last experiment did not prove very satisfactory, so the 
remaining engagements for lectures were cancelled and 
he went on his way. The Buddhists also entered the polit- 
ical arena. When several Christians were nominated for 
the first Imperial Parliament, the priests put forth stren- 
uous efforts against them. It was a bitter disappointment 
to them that a Christian was elected in Kyoto, their strong- 
hold, where they had been most active in their opposition. 

A more commendable way of upholding Buddhism was 



MODERN MISSIONS 93 

by the imitation of Christian institutions. Where Chris- 
tians estabhshed schools for young men, the Buddhists 
built others under their own control ; when the Christians 
had succeeded in arousing an interest in the education of 
girls, the Buddhists, unmindful of the low estimate they 
had always put on women, opened schools for girls, and 
in the same way they speedily imitated Young Men's 
Christian Associations, women's prayer-meetings, orphan- 
ages, temperance societies, summer schools, and other in- 
stitutions inaugurated by the Christians. It has some- 
times seemed as though one of the most marked results 
of missionary effort in Japan has been, as remarked by 
the Japan Mail, to give a new impetus to religious life 
in general, even to Buddhism, whose adherents could be 
heard saying, "If we do not arouse ourselves, v/e cannot 
hope to hold our own over against this energetic, indefat- 
igable propaganda." 

15. The Reaction. — The great movement in favor of 
Christianity reached its height about the year 1888. Soon 
thereafter came a reaction. Its immediate occasion is to 
be found in several circumstances that tended to arouse 
a strong nationalistic spirit. Great irritation was caused 
in connection with attempts to revise the treaties. Certain 
untoward events connected w^ith the introduction of West- 
ern customs increased the feeling. Conservatives were 
not slow to improve the opportunity, and they succeeded 
in stirring up a strong anti-foreign sentiment. '' Preserve 
the national spirit " became a powerful watch-cry. Chris- 
tianity, still regarded as a Western religion, now shared 
the disadvantages as it had before reaped the benefits of 
such a view. Pupils left the Christian schools, people no 
longer crowded the preaching-places, there were few ad- 
ditions to the churches, and it was necessary to strike 
from the rolls the names of many who no longer lived 
Christian lives nor retained a Christian belief. The na- 
tionalistic sentiment affected even Christian ministers 
and prominent laymen; so that many, who perhaps de- 
nied that they were moved by an anti-foreign spirit, took 
pleasure in criticising the missionaries, declared that 
Christianity must take on a Japanese form, and in other 
ways asserted what they called " independence." 

16. Doctrirmt Discussions. — Another disturbing influ- 



94 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

ence came from the shaking of doctrinal beliefs. The 
leading Japanese pastors and evangelists could read Eng- 
lish with more or less ease. They thus knew of the theo- 
logical unrest of the present day and were affected by it. 
Unitarian missionaries from America, especially, pro- 
claimed their views in tracts and magazines that they 
sent to the preachers and prominent laymen. It is not 
strange that the faith of some was shaken. To many 
Japanese it is a recommendation for any theory that it 
is new. The desire of some to show their independence 
of former teachers made them more ready to accept 
strange doctrines. 

Young men who had been to America for theological 
education were asked on their return to tell what they 
had learned. To tell of views like those commonly held 
by the churches would be akin to confessing that nothing 
had been gained during the months or years of absence, 
and so they told of some new theories they had heard. 
As questions were asked and the matter discussed, the 
returned student would find himself defending the novel 
view, whether he had previously adopted it or not, and 
thus ere long he would be known as its advocate, would 
deliver lectures upon it at summer schools, and would 
preach upon it whenever called to supply a pulpit. 
Views that might have done little harm in communities 
that had long been instructed in Christian doctrines as- 
sumed an exaggerated importance and led men to give 
up apparently all their early faith. 

17. The Commercial Spirit. — Another weakening influ- 
ence of recent years has come from the growth of the 
commercial spirit. The wonderful increase of trade and 
manufactures has had its influence upon all classes. A 
desire to make money has drawn some away from higher 
things. The claims of business have led some members 
of the church to absent themselves from meetings, made 
them careless about keeping the Sabbath, and sometimes 
brought them to acts inconsistent with Christian standards 
of morality. 

18. Interference with Religions Liberty. — An article 
in the new Constitution of Japan declares that " Japanese 
subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and 
order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, 



MODERN MISSIONS 9$ 

enjoy freedom of religious belief." This article has great- 
ly strengthened the position of the Christians. Its spirit, 
however, has not always been observed, even by those 
connected with the government. The commanders of 
some of the garrisons let it be known a few years ago 
that soldiers, when off duty, must not attend Christian 
services and must not read Christian books. Some sol- 
diers and inferior officers, who were members of churches, 
felt that they could not attend meetings without being 
made in some roundabout way to suffer for it. The war 
with China put an end to this persecution, at least for a 
time, and also opened a new field for Christian work. 
Permission was obtained by the agent of the Bible So- 
cieties to distribute the Scriptures in the army and navy. 
About 125,000 volumes were thus circulated. Christian 
workers were allowed to visit the hospitals, and six pas- 
tors were permitted to go to the front, carrying many 
comforts to the soldiers and doing religious work among 
them. 

Much opposition to Christianity has been felt in con- 
nection with the schools. A few years since what had 
before been flourishing Sabbath-schools lost most of their 
pupils. Inquiry showed that the children had been ad- 
vised by their teachers in the public schools to stay away. 
The fact that such advice was given in many parts of 
the country at about the same time seems to show that 
it was given in obedience to directions from high officials. 
Persons have been refused positions as teachers simply 
on the ground of their being Christians, and Christian 
pupils have also been made to suffer in various ways. In 
a few cases the injustice was so plainly a violation of the 
Constitution that agitation in the newspapers and by 
direct appeal secured justice ; but in other cases nothing 
could be done. 

In one other noteworthy particular the Department of 
Education seems to be acting contrary to the spirit of the 
Constitution. Pupils of the higher schools established 
by the government are exempt from military service, and 
the privilege has been extended to a few private schools. 
When the trustees of a Christian academy asked the same 
favor they were told that it could not be granted unless 
the school ceased to be professedly Christian. This deci- 



96 JAP A IV AND ITS REGENERATIOM 

sion is not against Christianity as such, for Buddhist 
schools meet the same refusal, it being said that educa- 
tion must be divorced from religion. If the Constitution 
would prohibit a different treatment of an individual be- 
cause he is religious rather than agnostic, it would seem 
as though it ought to prevent any discrimination against 
an institution because of its religion. 

19. The Rescript on Education. — An Imperial Edict 
on Education, which was issued in 1890, has been utilized 
by many enemies of Christianity for making an attack 
upon it. It is claimed that Christian ethics are not in 
harmony with those of this document, and some say that 
those who acknowledge any other standard of morality 
as having equal authority with the Edict are disloyal. 
In the schools, once a year or oftener,'it is read with 
much ceremony, while the pupils, with their heads rever- 
ently bowed, listen to its words. Since it is regarded with 
so much honor, and references to it are frequently made 
in the correspondence of missionaries, it will be well to 
insert the authorized translation of the document. 



Our Ancestors founded the State on a vast basis, while their 
virtues were deeply implanted ; and our subjects, by their una- 
nimity in their great loyalty and filial affection, have in all ages 
shown them in perfection. Such is the essential beauty of Our 
national polity, and such too is the true spring of Our educational 
system. You, Our beloved subjects, be filial to your parents, 
affectionate to your brothers, be loving husbands and wives, and 
truthful to your friends. Conduct yourselves with modesty, and 
be benevolent to all. Develop your intellectual faculties and per- 
fect your moral powers by gaining knowledge and by acquiring a 
profession. Further, promote the public interests and advance 
the public affairs ; ever respect the national constitution and 
obey the laws of the country ; and in case of emergency, cour- 
ageously sacrifice yourselves to the public good. Thus offer 
every support to Our Imperial dynasty which shall be as lasting 
as the universe. You will then not only be Our most loyal sub- 
jects, but will be enabled to exhibit the noble character of your 
ancestors. 

Such are the testaments left us by Our Ancestors, which must 
be observed alike by their descendants and subjects. These 
precepts are perfect throughout all ages and of universal appli- 
cation. It is Our desire to bear them in Our heart in common 
with you, Our subjects, to the end that we may constantly pos- 
sess these virtues. 



MODERN MISSIONS 97 

20. Charges against the Loyalty of Christians. — 
Though the bravery and devotion shown by many Chris- 
tian soldiers during the war with China would seem suf- 
ficient to rebut the charge that Christians cannot be loyal, 
this is still a favorite accusation to make against them. 
In 1897 a new movement, which seems to be in the inter- 
ests of a revived and modified Shintoism, was inaugu- 
rated. Its promoters, among whom were numbered pro- 
fessors in the Imperial University and other influential 
men, issued a challenge to all Japanese Christians asking 
them to return plain, unequivocal answers to certain ques- 
tions. The first three were: " (i) Can the worship of 
His Sacred Majesty, the Emperor, which every loyal 
Japanese performs, be reconciled with the worship of 
God and Christ by Christians? (2) Can the existence 
of authorities that are quite independent of the Japanese 
state, such as that of God, Christ, the Bible, the Pope, the 
Head of the Greek Church (Czar), be regarded as harm- 
less? (3) Can the Japanese who is the faithful servant 
of Christ be regarded at the same time as the faithful ser- 
vant of the Emperor and a true friend of His Majesty's 
faithful subjects? Or, to put it in another way, Is our 
Emperor to follow in the wake of Western emperors and 
to pray, ' Son of God, have mercy on me ' ? " 

21. Progress dtiring the Time of Reaction. — Though 
various influences, such as have been mentioned, hin- 
dered the growth of the Church, it must not be thought 
that no progress was made. The sifting process that took 
from the churches many who were not true believers has 
had its advantages. What shook the faith of some made 
that of others stronger and more intelligent. The gross 
immoralities into which some fell who were once preach- 
ers, but had wandered far from the faith, showed to others 
how necessary it is to cling close to the divine Saviour. 
The necessity of more care in admitting persons to church- 
membership has been made plain. Though it has been 
less easy than it once was to get people to attend preaching 
services, Christian ideas have more and more found their 
way into the minds of the people. In the secular period- 
icals there is a frequent use of Christian phrases, or even 
of verses from the Bible, showing that new thoughts are 
influencing the minds of men. Knowledge of Western 



98 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

lands and Western literature is familiarizing educated 
people with new ways of regarding the universe and 
mankind. Probably many who would not care to ac- 
knowledge it have almost unconsciously come to a belief 
in one God Who rules the world, and toward Whom they 
have duties. When, with clearer eyes, we can look 
back over the completed history of the evangelization of 
Japan, we may find that the years which seemed so full 
of difficulties and discouragements were really as fruitful 
as those when men seemed eager to hear the Gospel 
preached and when large numbers were seeking admission 
to the churches. 



X 
Methods of Work 

The missionary, while home on furlough, is frequently 
questioned about the way in which he conducts his work, 
and a chapter upon this subject may help to present in 
a clearer light many things connected with missionary 
effort in Japan. Let us then picture to ourselves a young 
missionary who has just landed in the country, and con- 
sider how he will do his part in building up God's king- 
dom there. At times we shall pause to consider how those 
who preceded him did their work. 

I. Study of the Language.— i. Its Necessity. — As 
the newly arrived missionary sees the throngs passing 
along the streets, he longs to tell them the Story of the 
Cross. Yet, if he speaks to them, they understand noth- 
ing of what he says. They are evidently talking with 
each other, but he does not know even the subject of their 
conversation. It is as though a great gulf separated 
them from him. Evidently the first work to be attempted 
by him is the bridging of the gulf — in other words, he 
must study their language. Some, indeed, have worked 
through interpreters, but such a method is unsatisfactory. 
As a rule, it is only some famous man, delivering but one 
or two addresses in a city, who can draw many hearers 
besides those who come as students of English, desiring 
to train their ears to catch the meaning of what is uttered 
in a foreign tongue. Moreover, good interpreters are not 
easily found, and the speaker would often be troubled if 
he knew how those whom he employs transform his 
thought, either because they do not understand his mean- 
ing or think that they can improve upon his treatment 
of the subject. The person who expects to engage in per- 
manent work will probably find it better not to depend, 
even temporarily, on such aid. By doing so he lessens the 

99 



100 JAPAN- AND ITS REGENERATION 

incentive to study, and those who commence by depending 
upon another often find it harder to trust to their own 
efforts. 

2. Methods of Study. — In the study of the language 
each missionary usually employs his own so-called '* teach- 
er," but the chances are that the latter knows little about 
how to impart instruction, and the learner must invent his 
own ways of getting desired information from him. Un- 
fortunately, Japanese ideas of propriety prevent the aver- 
age teacher from correcting mistakes ; very likely he will 
adopt the erroneous expressions of his pupil in order to 
make himself more easily understood by the latter. Some 
missions, having found men unusually well fitted for the 
work, permanently employ them to teach the language to 
newcomers. There is some difference of opinion as to 
whether it is better at the very commencement to have 
a teacher who understands English, or to take one wholly 
ignorant of that language. This is perhaps ceasing to be 
a practical question, since w^ell-educated men who have 
not some knowledge of English are becoming rare. The 
learner needs to take heed lest *' following the line of 
least resistance " prevents him from using Japanese in 
conversation with his teacher. 

Some students believe that they will gain a more idio-, 
matic use of the language if all dictionaries and other 
books are discarded and the time spent in study be given 
wholly to conversation with any people whom they can 
find to talk with them. If, however, such persons are 
asked to write out sentences, their methods of spelling 
will show that their ears have failed to catch the correct 
sounds of the words, and he who gains his knowledge of 
a language by conversation with all classes and conditions 
of men is likely to acquire an uncouth and inelegant dic- 
tion. 

There is such a thing as confining one's self too closely 
to books, and also such a thing as neglecting them too 
much. The ideal way would seem to be to lay the foun- 
dations by study with a teacher who uses good language, 
and by careful employment of grammar and dictionary. 
After that, and in connection with it, the student may well 
exercise tongue and ear by conversation with other people ; 
only let him resolve not to adopt any new word into his 



METHODS OF WORK 101 

vocabulary until he has seen what the dictionary can tell 
him about it. Some missions have prescribed courses 
of study, with yearly examinations, for new missionaries. 
One has a rule that during the first two years the new 
missionary shall not engage in English teaching or similar 
work for more than two hours a day, thus leaving most 
of the time for the study of the language. It is gen- 
erally felt that for the first three years no work should 
be assumed which involves responsibility. 

3. Not Lost Time. — The years spent upon the language 
are by no means lost in other respects. The student is 
learning about Japanese character and customs. If able 
to speak as soon as he landed, he would doubtless make 
very great blunders in his method of presenting the truth, 
and his time of enforced silence, with its opportunities 
for observation, ought to save him from many of those 
to which he would be liable. A small amount of English 
teaching, whether in a school or to private pupils, will 
prevent the feeling of utter uselessness and give him 
opportunities for a helpful acquaintance with young 
people. With his teacher to aid him, he may, after a few 
months, teach a Bible class; and still later, a sermon, 
corrected by the teacher and committed to memory, will 
introduce him to the pulpit. If he is so fortunate as to 
be sent to an interior town, where foreigners are a novelty, 
he will find that, even before he knows much of the lan- 
guage, his home will prove an important aid to missionary 
work. Its furnishing makes the house so different from 
those of the Japanese that numbers of people come to see 
how the foreigner lives. Their request for admission 
should be granted, even though important study is inter- 
rupted. Acquaintance may thus be made with persons 
who will be more likely to accept an invitation to some 
meeting because of the friendly reception. Even with 
imperfect language something can be said of Jesus Christ. 
At the least, some tract telling the most important truths 
of Christianity can be given to each visitor as he goes 
away. 

II. Direct Evangelistic Effort — A fair amount of 
progress having been made in the language, the mission- 
ary finds various forms of labor opening before him. He 
is likely to take part in several of them. The first is the 



I02 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

direct teaching of the Gospel, whether by preaching, con- 
versation with individuals, or by conducting Bible classes. 

1. Sunday-schools. — The missionary who commences 
work in a new place may find that it is well to t)egin with 
a Sunday-school. Since there are no sessions of the pub- 
lic schools on Sunday, the children are at liberty. It is 
usually easy to attract them by music, large Bible pictures, 
the telling of stories, and other similar methods. Having 
brought them together for the first few sessions, the skill 
of the workers will decide whether they can be held to 
regular attendance. Sometimes these schools are held in 
the missionary's house ; oftener a building is hired, which 
can also be used for preaching services and other meet- 
ings. If there is a sufficient number of persons avail- 
able for teachers, the children are after- awhile divided 
into classes, and a regular Sunday-school is organized. 
Not only is there reason to hope that the thoughts put into 
young minds will influence the whole future of these chil- 
dren, but they will report to their parents some of the 
things they have heard, or the papers that they are given 
to carry home will interest others of the family in Chris- 
tian truth. 

2. Preaching. — If one walks in the evening through the 
streets of a Japanese town, he is likely to see hanging in 
front of one of the buildings a paper lantern, perhaps 
three feet high, inscribed, " Teaching about the True 
God. Please come in." A wooden sign beside the door 
shows that this is a Christian preaching-place. Very like- 
ly the building is directly upon the street, and the whole 
front of it is open, so that persons who do not care to 
enter can stand outside and hear what is being said. Here 
the missionary and his associates preach to any who may 
have been attracted by the words on the lantern, by spe- 
cial invitations sent to people of the neighborhood, or by 
the notes of the baby organ and the Christian hymn. At 
first large numbers are likely to come ; but the missionary 
should not be deceived by the presence of so many people 
or by the eagerness with which they crowd about him 
to get the tracts which he distributes at the close of the 
service. They have come from curiosity, and not because 
their souls hunger for a knowledge of truth. After a few 
weeks, unless the preaching-place is on some busy street 



METHODS OF WORK IO3 

where people are continually passing, the curiosity is 
satiated and the numbers in attendance become discour- 
agingly small. If, however, a few of these can be brought 
to a real acceptance of Christ, a foundation has been laid 
for permanent work. These new believers will try to 
influence others, and so the little flock begins to increase 
until it becomes large enough to be organized into a 
church. 

If the missionary who is able to preach is located in 
a station where there are already churches, he will be 
invited, from time to time, to occupy their pulpits. Some- 
times he may be asked to join his Japanese brethren in 
holding what are called '' great - preaching - meetings." 
These may occupy but a single evening, or they may con- 
tinue through the afternoon and evening of one or more 
days. They are held in a church or in some large build- 
ing hired for the purpose. A few years ago such meet- 
ings were often held in theatres — large, barn-like struct- 
ures, with room for several hundred people — but the 
disturbances that are likely to occur in such places have 
made their use less common in recent years. 

3. Itinerating. — Some missionaries spend considerable 
time in travel. A part of this may be spent in going to 
new places, where the Gospel has never before been 
preached. Probably such a visit will be in response to 
an invitation from one or more persons living in the place 
where he goes. It is easy to see how much better it is 
to go where there are people desiring to see him than it 
is to push in where no one has any interest in him or his 
message. The invitation may come from a Christian 
who has removed his residence, or from some person 
who has bought a book from a travelling colporteur, or in 
other ways has gained a little knowledge of the truth, 
so that he desires instruction for himself and his friends. 
In going to such a place the missionary will prefer to 
be accompanied by one or more of his Japanese fellow- 
workers. They can judge better than he of the real con- 
ditions of the place and its people, and there are parts 
of the work that can always be better done by the native 
than by the foreigner. 

If the people who sent the invitation know the probable 
hour of the missionary's coming, they will meet him two 



104 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

or three miles outside of the city and accompany him 
as he continues on his way. There often comes a strange, 
perhaps a cowardly feeling, as one draws near the city. 
Here is this place with its thousands of inhabitants who 
as yet know nothing of Christianity. They are to get 
their first ideas of it now. Some mistake in the way the 
missionary presents the truth, some awkward blunder in 
the language, some unintentional violation of Japanese 
ideas of propriety, may prejudice people against the Chris- 
tian religion and make it more difficult for other workers 
to go there than though he had never visited the place ; or 
it may be that the right words spoken in the right manner 
will prove as seed sown in good ground that shall spring 
up and bear fruit to God's glory. Who is sufficient for 
these things? How can one take such 'a responsibility? 
It is now too late to retreat; the only thing is to go for- 
ward, with the prayer that God will guide in every word 
and act, so that what is said and done shall be to His glory. 
Probably arrangements will have been made for having 
meetings in a theatre or other large building. Curiosity 
to see the foreigner and to hear something new brings 
together a crowded audience. In the winter the meeting 
will not commence until eight o'clock in the evening; in 
summer, especially in agricultural communities, it is diffi- 
cult to get people together until nine o'clock or later. They 
are patient listeners, and the addresses are so long that 
it is likely to be midnight before the missionary returns 
to his hotel, weary from the journey and the speaking. 
He would be disappointed, however, if he could at once 
retire to rest ; for he hopes that some people at the meet- 
ing were so interested in what they heard that they will 
come for conversation. He has hardly seated himself 
upon the mats when a few persons enter, and now the 
missionary has what may well be called an " inquiry meet- 
ing." Outwardly it does not bear much resemblance to 
such meetings in America. As soon as the long saluta- 
tions are over, and cups of tea have been ofifered to the 
visitors, each inquirer will probably draw out pipe or 
cigarette, and the air becomes thick with smoke. What- 
ever the missionary may think of tobacco, he must learn 
to be indifferent to its fumes while he listens to the ques- 
tions that are proposed, and strives to give satisfactory 
answers. 



METHODS OF WORK IO5 

At last the people depart, the hotel waitresses spread 
upon the matted floor the quilts that serve for a bed, and 
the missionary tries to snatch a few hours' sleep before 
daybreak causes the hotel to be filled with noise and con- 
fusion. Fortunate is he, however, if his first nap is not 
interrupted by the policeman who wishes to see his pass- 
port, or by some other person who finds an excuse for 
wakening him. There is no privacy in a Japanese hotel, 
and people come into the traveller's room at any hour 
of day or night. During the two or three days that the 
missionary remains in the town his time is occupied with 
meetings, conversation with those who come to his room, 
and with calls upon persons who perhaps can be interested 
in Christianity. All of this is fatiguing, but, if it results 
in the establishment of permanent work, the missionarv 
feels well repaid. 

Another form of itinerating work, which may be com- 
bined in the same tour with the other, consists in visiting 
the out-stations where native evangelists reside or where 
a little company of believers meet together for the study 
of the Scriptures. If there is no ordained pastor in the 
place, this will be the time for holding a communion ser- 
vice and administering the rite of baptism. There will 
also be consultations with evangelists and others, meet- 
ings for the Christians, calls upon the sick or those who 
are wandering from the faith, and evangelistic services 
for non-believers. 

4. Work with Individuals. — The missionary is likely 
to have many people come to his house to inquire about 
Christianity. Not all of them are honest seekers after 
truth. Thinking that their requests are more likely to 
be successful if prefaced by inquiries about religion, they 
listen patiently while the missionary explains his doc- 
trines, and at the close they ask for financial help, instruc- 
tion in English, or some other favor. It is not so with all, 
however, for some are really desirous to learn the truth, 
and it is a great joy to see their faces light up as some 
passage from the Bible or some word of explanation 
makes plain what before had not been understood. Other 
people must be sought out in their own homes, and some 
missionaries have the happy faculty of being able to arouse 
the interest of persons whom they meet in railroad cars, 
steamboats, or in their walks through the country. 



I06 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

5. The Work of Missionary Women. — Though the 
women who are engaged in missionary work seldom make 
pubHc addresses, they are busy in other forms of activity, 
accompHshing as much as the men, and often very much 
more. In their own homes, in those of the people, in 
Bible classes, and during the tours that some of them 
make into the country, they find abundant opportunities 
for usefulness. It may be partly because of greater pa- 
tience and tact, and partly because there is not the fear 
that they will try to exercise authority in the church, that 
their advice is often sought and valued by the Japanese 
evangelists more than is that of the men. While the un- 
married women can give more time than the married ones 
to evangelistic work, many of the latter have accomplished 
much, and those vv^ho have been kept in their own homes 
have made these an example to those who, seeing them, 
have been moved by a desire to have their own family 
life raised to a higher plane. 

III. Educational Work — Educational work has from 
the first held an important place in Japan. Mention has 
already been made of the opportunities to teach English 
that were utilized by the early missionaries. The con- 
tinuance of a desire for such instruction favored the 
opening of schools. Though at first there was, even 
among progressive men, little interest in the education 
of their daughters, it was felt that by bringing the girls 
into schools where they would be under the care of Chris- 
tian women they might be made powerful agents for the 
intellectual, social, and spiritual elevation of the country. 
Most missions founded schools for young men and young 
women, and it cannot be doubted that they have done a 
most useful work. There is, however, considerable dif- 
ference of opinion as to whether education has received 
too large a share of attention in the past, and as to how 
much should be given it in the future. 

I. Theological Training. — There is a general agree- 
ment that provision must be made for the training of 
pastors and other Christian workers. To some extent 
this need may be met if each missionary gives to his 
immediate helpers such instruction as is required for their 
own edification and for immediate impartation to others. 
Some persons have received valuable training by becom- 



METHODS OF WORK IO7 

ing assistants to experienced pastors, under whose direc- 
tion they worked. It is necessary, however, that others 
should have the more thorough instruction that can be 
given in a theological seminary. Some missionaries con- 
tend that the teaching should be in the vernacular, and 
that, except in special cases, it is not wise for the student 
to give the time and strength that is required for the ac- 
quirement of English. On the other hand, though some 
theological schools have courses exclusively in the ver- 
nacular, it is usually found that the students are not satis- 
fied unless they can have instruction in English ; for that 
language is so much studied at the present time that one 
who knows nothing about it is regarded as an uneducated 
person, and hence his influence in the place where he la- 
bors is much diminished. 

Some missions have established schools that are carried 
on a few months of each year for the training of Bible- 
women. These workers have proved so efficient that it 
has seemed wise to give them opportunities for systematic 
study of the Bible and for such instruction in other sub- 
jects as will increase their usefulness. 

2. Schools of Academic Grade. — The problems con- 
nected with schools of an academic grade are too compli- 
cated to be discussed here. Those who are most pro- 
nounced in their favor would acknowledge that, so far as 
schools for young men are concerned, the government 
has provided those that are fairly satisfactory from an 
intellectual standpoint. The questions are rather whether, 
in view of the materialistic, irreligious, and sometimes 
immoral atmosphere that prevails in those schools, there 
is need for others that shall be under Christian influences ; 
whether the large expenditure of mission funds that is 
needed to support schools that will compare favorably 
with those of the government is justified ; and whether 
the tendency to emphasize intellectual work can be so held 
in check that the directly religious efforts of the mission 
shall not be subordinated to it. In the boys' schools of 
academic grade there is now little call for instruction by 
foreign teachers, except in English conversation, compo- 
sition, and literature. Japanese text-books have been 
prepared in all the sciences, and native instructors can 
usually be found who are fitted to conduct the classes. 



I08 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

3. Schools for Girls. — There is less discussion about 
boarding-schools for girls. This is partly because the 
government has done but little for the higher education 
of women, and partly because the way in which mission 
schools are conducted gives the foreign teachers great op- 
portunities to influence the pupils and help them to Chris- 
tian belief and life. In addition to the schools established 
by missions, there are some that have been founded by 
companies of native Christians who seek the help of mis- 
sionary women in the instruction. 

4. Kindergartens. — In many places the kindergarten 
has been found a very valuable instrument for Christian 
work, not merely because of the opportunities it affords 
for moulding the lives of children at the time when they 
are most susceptible to good influences, -but also because 
through the children the parents may also be reached. 
There are public kindergartens in the large cities, but 
the absence from them of the religious element prevents 
them from carrying out the principles that, in Frobel's 
view, lie at the foundation of the system. In connection 
with one or two of the missions there are training-schools 
for teachers. The graduates are in great request by the 
government kindergartens, but their best work is done 
where they can be free to use Christian songs, stories, and 
instruction for the help of their pupils. Kindergartners 
are always enthusiastic, and he who sees them surrounded 
by the bright-faced children cannot wonder that they con- 
sider their work so important and effective. 

5. Private Classes. — The missionary is likely to have 
numerous requests to teach English to individuals or to 
evening classes. Sometimes a number of school-teachers, 
policemen, bank-clerks, or others will desire to form such 
classes. If all requests were granted, the time of the 
missionary would be fully occupied, and he must decide 
whether the advantages that come from gaining an influ- 
ence over the pupils and from opportunities that may be 
wisely improved for giving a religious turn to some of 
the exercises of the class will justify his undertaking such 
work. Some persons have made it very effective ; and the 
young missionary, who has not yet learned the language, 
often finds reason to rejoice that this opportunity for use- 
fulness is open to him from the first. 



METHODS OF WORIC IO9 

IV.- Literary Work. — i. Translation of the Scriptures. 
— Nearly the first thing to which Protestant missionaries 
devote their attention is the translation of the Scriptures. 
Though in Japan this has already been accomplished, so 
that young missionaries cannot look forward to work of 
this kind, except as revision may sometime engage the 
efforts of a few, it will be well to make mention of what 
was done in the past. Before the country had been opened 
Drs. Giitzlaff, Williams, and Bettelheim had prepared 
translations of some parts of the Bible; but these were 
so imperfect that they would have been of little use, even 
if it had been possible to introduce them into the country. 
It was, however, a great help to missionary effort that 
educated Japanese were able to read Chinese. Mr. Lig- 
gins, of the Episcopal Mission, wrote from Nagasaki, in 
i860, that, during the first ten months of his stay in Japan, 
he had '' sold sixty copies of the Scriptures and books 
wholly religious, besides 2,000 magazines partly religious 
and partly secular," and a little later Dr. Brown had sold, 
at Kanagawa, 200 copies of the New Testament. Soon, 
however, fear of being found with Christian books kept 
the people from purchasing more. Japanese teachers were 
afraid to help their employers in the work of translation. 
When, notwithstanding this difficulty, some portions had 
been prepared, no printer could be found. Owing to such 
obstacles, it was not until 1871 that any of the Bible was 
printed in Japan. Mr. Goble then published the Gospel 
of Matthew. A few other portions were soon afterward 
printed, and, in September, 1872, a committee was ap- 
pointed by a united conference of Protestant missionaries 
to prepare a translation of the whole New Testament. 
The different books were published as fast as translated, 
and the whole New Testament was completed in 1880, 
while the Old Testament was not finished until 1887. 

2. Other Books. — In the early days many books besides 
the Scriptures were brought from China. Dr. Martin's 
" Evidences of Christianity " had a much greater circu- 
lation among the Japanese than among the people for 
whom it was originally intended. Thousands of copies 
were imported, and it was sold by native book-stores in 
places not yet visited by Christian workers. In 1867 Dr. 
Hepburn published the first tract in Japanese* Those who, 



no JAPAN AND ITS REGEN'ERATION 

with the aid of their teachers, prepared some of the early 
tracts, found great difficulty in getting them written in 
language that could be understood by the common people. 
One missionary tells how he went over the manuscript 
sentence by sentence, asking whether the meaning was 
evident and forcing the reluctant teacher to use simpler 
words. When all was ready for the press, the teacher 
begged that his name should not be allowed to appear in 
connection with the tract, as he would be ashamed to 
have it known that he had written anything in a style 
that could be easily understood. 

Though there are now a large number of tracts and 
other Christian publications, there is still need for new 
and forcible presentations of the truth and for books in 
all departments of religious literature. Most missionaries 
will be led to publish something. The success of this 
kind of work largely depends upon the skill of the Japa- 
nese who assists in its preparation; for, even more than 
in English, style is important, while care must be taken 
in the choice of Chinese ideographs and in many other 
niceties that a foreigner can hardly appreciate. Though 
missionaries had the care of publishing the first Christian 
newspapers and magazines, most of this work has now 
been given over to the Japanese. There are at present a 
large number of these periodicals, and the missionary may 
find it profitable to contribute to their columns. 

V. Medical Work — i. Those who have not had a full 
medical education are unlikely to attempt, as they might 
in some countries, to use what little knowledge and simple 
remedies they may possess for helping the sick. At first 
Japan furnished unusually favorable opportunities for the 
medical missionary. Dr. Hepburn opened a dispensary 
at Kanagawa soon after his arrival. " It found favor with 
the people until the authorities forbade them to go to it. 
Finally it was found expedient to close it. After the 
Doctor's removal to Yokohama, at the close of 1862, he 
established a dispensary there. Thousands of poor suf- 
ferers were relieved of their ailments, while their spiritual 
needs were at the same time attended to, in several cases 
with the happiest results." 

2. The medical missionaries were usually welcomed by 
the Japanese physicians, who were desirous of gaining 



Methods op wokic \\l 

from them a knowledge of foreign medicine. It was the 
rule with most of these missionaries not to conduct an in- 
dependent work. They treated the sick in connection with 
the native doctors, thus taking somewhat the position of 
consulting physicians. By doing this they avoided enter- 
ing into competition with the Japanese practitioners. 
These still received the fees from the patients, and so 
they gladly brought their most puzzling cases, that they 
might be advised about methods of treatment, and, where 
surgical operations were required, they acted as assistants. 
They thus received most valuable instruction. The med- 
ical work did much to remove prejudices against Chris- 
tianity; religious services were often held in the rooms 
used for dispensaries, and many interior towns were 
opened to evangelistic efforts by the visits of the medical 
missionary. Those who had been healed were filled with 
gratitude to their benefactor, sometimes literally worship- 
ping him or putting his photograph among the objects 
of devotion on the ** god-shelf." Though medical mis- 
sionaries who have already gained reputation and influ- 
ence in Japan find their time well occupied, the opportu- 
nity for new workers is now much less than in most other 
countries, for the government has established medical col- 
leges that every year send out many graduates whose tech- 
nical education will compare favorably with that given 
in the schools of the West. 

3. Closely associated with the medical work is the train- 
ing of nurses. This has been undertaken by some missions 
with gratifying results. Though similar schools have 
been established by the Red Cross Society and in connec- 
tion with several hospitals, the graduates from Christian 
schools have won a fine reputation, partly because care 
has been taken to accept only women of superior char- 
acter, and partly because the spirit pervading the institu- 
tions has tended to develop high ideals of devotion, neat- 
ness, truth, and faithfulness. 

VI. Miscellaneous Work — The missionary must be 
prepared to turn his hand to any kind of service that will 
increase his usefulness. The musician can help to train 
the congregations to sing Christian hymns or can instruct 
young women to play upon the organ, so as to aid the 
musical part of the church services. Another may be 



112 Japan AND ITS RE genera TION 

called on to draw plans for churches or schools. Some 
have found that the stereopticon can be so used as not 
merely to interest large audiences, but also to impress 
Christian truths upon their minds. There are sometimes 
calls to address educational meetings. Temperance, phi- 
lanthropy, social reform, may demand attention and re- 
ceive help. There is hardly any talent possessed by a 
missionary which he will not at some time have an op- 
portunity to utilize and make tributary to his main pur- 
pose. 

VII. The Missionary's Relation to the Japanese 
Churches. — i. This will evidently depend to a great extent 
upon the polity of the Church in question. With some 
branches of the Church the highest offices are held by 
foreigners, and they, to a large extent, control the actions 
and the activities of the churches ; with others, the mis- 
sionaries and Japanese officers are upon an equal footing 
and are together responsible for the legislation of the 
body; in still others, the whole control is with the Japa- 
nese, the missionary having no vote and exerting influence 
only through the advice that he may give. Each method 
has its advantages and its disadvantages ; and the present 
volume is not the fitting place to discuss the different sys- 
tems. 

2. Another difference in the views and practice of mis- 
sionaries is not determined by denominational prefer- 
ences, though perhaps somewhat influenced by Church 
polity ; this difference concerns the ever-burning question 
of self-support. Some missions do almost everything for 
the churches, paying the salaries of pastors and evangel- 
ists, erecting church buildings, supporting pupils in 
schools, etc. The diametrically opposite policy has been 
adopted by no mission, though many persons connected 
with diflferent missions urgently advocate it. This would 
be to pay nothing at all toward the expenses of any 
church. Probably all missionaries recognize to some ex- 
tent the great evils and dangers that are connected with 
the use of foreign money; they cannot agree as to the 
extent in which efficient work can be done without it. 
The aim of all is to build up Japanese churches that shall 
ultimately be wholly independent of foreign control and 
support; the problem is how this can be most quickly 
accomplished. 



XI 

Present Conditions and Opportunities 

I. What has been Accomplished. — i. The Gathering 
of the Forces. — However much or little the Church has 
thus far accomplished in Japan, it cannot be denied that 
it has at least succeeded in sending forth its forces and 
in occupying many important centres. In military af- 
fairs the raising of an effective army and the occupation 
of strategic points is considered a great and important 
step toward victory. It must prove to be the same in the 
missionary enterprises of the Church if those whom it has 
commissioned to do its work are the proper persons for 
its accomplishment. There were, in 1898, including the 
Bible and Tract Societies, thirty-nine Protestant mission- 
ary bodies working in Japan, and two in Formosa. Be- 
sides these, there were several missionaries not connected 
with any society. The number of missionaries — including 
wives, but omitting some persons who belonged to so- 
cieties that did not furnish statistics — was 692. Of these, 
232 were men and 257 were unmarried women. They 
lived in seventy different cities and had work in 864 out- 
stations. Among the latter some places are counted more 
than once, two or more missions having interests in the 
same town. Formosan statistics are not here included. 

There is considerable difference of opinion about the 
advisability of increasing the number of missionaries. 
Some point to the many towns whose people have not 
yet heard anything about Christ, and say that while so 
much remains to be done missions must continue to call 
for reinforcements. Others consider that the work of 
the foreign missionary should be chiefly confined to a few 
important points ; that the responsibility for evangelizing 
other places must be thrown upon the native Christians, 
and that,; while many other countries are inadequately sup- 
8 113 



114 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

plied with missionaries, men and women should not be 
urged to come to Japan except as vacancies caused by 
the removal of those now on the field may require, or as 
other special needs may arise. 

2. Relations between Different Missions. — In some re- 
spects it may be unfortunate that the number of societies 
working in Japan should be so large ; and some writers, 
though for the most part they have been those who have 
little sympathy with missions, have pictured the confusion 
of the Japanese as so many forms of Christianity are pre- 
sented to their minds. Practically, however, there is little 
trouble of this kind. In the first place, the Japanese are 
accustomed to the idea of sects, those of Buddhism and 
Shintoism differing more from each other than do the 
Protestant, Roman, and Greek Churches. Moreover, 
Christian missionaries, as a rule, are not inclined to em- 
phasize denominational differences. There is little attempt 
to draw believers from one fold to another. The Uni- 
tarians, indeed, apparently consider that the best work 
can be done by sending their publications to evangelical 
believers whose former faith they desire to weaken or 
destroy; there are a few persons unconnected with any 
society who attempt to induce Christians to leave the 
churches, and peculiarities of doctrine or church govern- 
ment have in some cases proved a bar to united effort; 
but, taken as a whole, the influence of the missionaries 
has been against denominationalism. Most are very care- 
ful not to interfere with the work of others. The mission- 
aries have often exerted their influence to prevent the 
native Christians from opening work in places occupied 
by other branches of the Church. It was thought, in the 
earlier days of the work, that there might, to some extent, 
be a division of the field among different societies, but 
this was soon found impracticable, as the people first 
reached by the Gospel were such as were most liable to 
move from one part of the country to another. As they 
made openings for missionary work in their new homes, 
it was natural that they should seek to have it carried 
on by the churches with which they were affiliated. 

Missionaries and Christians of different bodies unite in 
evangelistic and other services. The Week of Prayer is 
observed by union meetings, and in one large city it was 



PRESENT CONDITIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES II5 

for several years the custom to have it close with a com- 
munion service in which missionaries of the Church of 
England, Presbyterian, Congregational, and Episcopal 
Churches of America united with the Japanese Christians 
in commemorating the dying love of their common Lord. 
There are not so many branches of the Church in Japan 
as there are missionary bodies. Seven Presbyterian so- 
cieties work in connection with the one " Church of Christ 
in Japan," and four Episcopal societies with the " Nippon 
Sei Kokzvai/' There have been propositions for uniting 
the work of the different Methodist societies, and a few 
years ago a union of the Presbyterian and Kumi-ai — 
Congregational — Churches came very near being effected. 

3. Assertions that Missions Accomplish Little. — The 
Christian Church has little cause to rejoice in the numbers 
of men sent to the front, unless they are accomplishing 
something or are likely to do so in the near future. Do 
missions succeed ? From time to time, persons who have 
visited Japan return to tell their friends or to write to 
various periodicals that missions are a failure. As they 
have been in the country, even though it was for only 
a few days, their testimony is regarded as conclusive. 
One inquiry should be made of such persons. Did they 
visit the missionaries, the schools, and the churches? or 
did they depend upon the gossip they heard on the steam- 
ers and in the hotels? Among the European merchants 
there are some who take a real and helpful interest in 
Christian work, but it is a matter for regret that most of 
them do not. It would take too much space to discuss the 
reasons for this, but the fact is evident. Dr. Griffis has 
written : " A community in, which the lives of the major- 
ity are secretly or openly at variance with the plainest 
precepts of the Great Master cannot, even on general prin- 
ciples, be expected to sympathize very deeply with, or even 
comprehend, the efforts of men who are social heretics. It 
is hard to find an average ' man of the world ' in Japan who 
has any clear idea of what the missionaries are doing 
or have done. Their dense ignorance borders on the ri- 
diculous." Yet it is from such people that the ordinary 
traveller is likely to get his ideas. 

A gentleman, whose brother had written an excellent 
book on missions, came to Japan, saying : " I, too, am 



Il6 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

going to investigate the question, but not as my brother 
did. He went to the missionaries, who naturally made 
the best showing possible. I shall keep away from them, 
and by asking the sea-captains and merchants what they 
think, shall get disinterested testimony." There might 
be some reason in this if he had found men who really 
had any information; but what would he think of one 
who, wishing to find out about trade in Japan, should 
keep aloof from merchants and gather the opinions of 
missionaries who never went into the offices and stores 
of the great business firms. A person often fails to see 
because he does not care to see. A lady who lived several 
years in Japan said, on returning home : " I know that 
those missionaries do not reach the people. For years 
I lived opposite the church, and I never' saw a Japanese 
enter its doors." To her friends this must have been con- 
vincing testimony, for they did not know, and apparently 
she did not, that the church in question was that of the 
foreign community, all its services being in English. Had 
she walked a few steps some Sunday morning into the 
native town, she might have seen crowded congregations 
of Japanese Christians. 

4. Converts. — A person who is acquainted with the 
facts may reply to the one who says nothing is being 
accomplished: *' Up to the spring of 1872 only ten Prot- 
estant Christians had been baptized in all Japan. The 
statistics for 1898 show a church membership of 40,981, 
and 3,070 adult baptisms during the year. That looks as 
though Christianity had made some progress." Let it not 
be thought that such statements will change the traveller's 
verdict. He remembers other things that he heard on the 
steamer, and, with a scornful smile, he says : " Oh, yes, 
I know that a good number of church members are re- 
ported, but who are they? Only people of the lowest 
classes, most of them mere rice-Christians who have been 
led into the Church from hope of personal gain." If this 
is true, it is strange that their contributions during the 
year amounted to 95,366 Yen ($47,683 in American 
gold). When one considers the persecution and loss that 
some of them have endured for Christ's sake, there seems 
just cause for indignation at their being called " rice- 
Christians." Only those of the ''lowest classes"! 



PRESENT CONDITIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 11/ 

If we should learn that the Speaker of our national 
House of Representatives had accepted some belief that 
is despised or hated by most of his countrymen, should 
we speak of him as one of the lowest classes who had been 
influenced by hope of personal gain ? The presiding offi- 
cer of the Lower House in the first Japanese Parliament, 
which met in 1890, was a Christian. The one who has 
held the same position in the last two Parliaments is an 
elder in a Presbyterian church. He has been a member 
of every parliament from the beginning. When he was 
first nominated some of his political friends came to him, 
saying, " You hold a prominent place among the Chris- 
tians, and our opponents will use the fact against you. Of 
course, we cannot ask you to give up your religion ; but 
we do wish you to resign your eldership. After being 
elected, you could resume the office, but it is necessary for 
you to lay it aside for a time." '' No," answered Mr. 
Kataoka, *' I would rather lose my chance of going to 
Parliament than give up my office in the Church." If 
we heard that the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of 
the United. States had become the follower of some de- 
spised religion, should we say that he is another of the 
lowest classes who has been led by the hope of personal 
gain? One who for some time held the corresponding 
position in Japan is a Christian who did not hide his re- 
ligion and who finally resigned his high office because 
certain things occurring in connection with judicial af- 
fairs were contrary to his ideas of right. Mention might 
be made of many more — judges, legislators, ex-daimyos, 
officers in army or navy, lawyers, physicians, merchants, 
editors, and other well-known men — the list proving the 
gross ignorance displayed by the remarks of those who 
hate missions or do not take the trouble to learn the truth 
about them. 

No claim is niade that all ai these believers were brought 
to Christ by the direct efforts of the missionaries. So 
far as human agency is concerned, most of them were led 
by Japanese pastors and evangelists; but it is the work 
of missions as a whole that has set in motion the influences 
that are building up the Church in Japan. 

5. Successful Work among the Ainu. — An earlier chap- 
ter contained a description of the aboriginal race whose 



Il8 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

remnant is found in the northern islands. Representa- 
tives of the Church Missionary Society had made a few 
visits to these Ainu previous to 1883, v^hen a new effort 
for their evangehzation was inaugurated. In that year 
Rev. Mr. Batchelor, who had previously made them two 
visits of two months each, went again into the Ainu coun- 
try, in the northern island of Yezo, where he remained 
six months. His former friends had not forgotten him. 
They manifested great pleasure at his return, almost 
whole villages turning out to welcome him, and their 
chiefs expressing the hope that he would remain among 
them for a long time. He located himself at Piratori, the 
old Ainu capital, where Chief Penri lent him a corner 
of his hut. The study of the language was resumed, a 
vocabulary of about 6,000 words collected, and an Ainu 
grammar compiled. Since then Mr. Batchelor has trans- 
lated the Scriptures, the Prayer-Book, and other works. 
The Ainu, though quiet and gentle, are much addicted to 
drunkenness. This vice, connected as it is with their 
worship, is one of the greatest obstacles in the way of 
their receiving the Gospel. In 1897 over 700 Ainu had 
been baptized, a very encouraging result when we remem- 
ber that the whole number of these aborigines is only 
about 17,000. Schools for both boys and girls have been 
established. The centre of the work is now at Sapporo. 
Here has been built a " Rest House " for the accommoda- 
tion of Ainu out-patients attending the Japanese Hospi- 
tal. Out of the seventy-five patients received during the 
first year, eleven definitely embraced Christianity, and all 
heard much of Christ and His Gospel. 

6. Philanthropy. — A living Christianity will not be in- 
different to the needs of suffering humanity. Love for 
God will lead to labors of love for His children. The 
missionaries themselves have engaged in such work, but 
it is encouraging to see that many of the Japanese Chris- 
tians have felt that God called them to earnest and self- 
sacrificing efforts for the weak and suffering. For ex- 
ample, Mr. Ishii, a young medical student in Okayama, 
became so interested in orphan children that he gave up 
the profession for which he had nearly prepared himself, 
burned his medical books that they might not tempt him 
to resume his studies, and took some of these children 



PRESENT CONDITIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES II9 

into his home. The work grew upon his hands, and the 
asylum which he founded has won the admiration of be- 
Hevers and non-behevers in Christianity. In Hke man- 
ner, Mr. Hara became interested in prisoners and has de- 
voted himself to work for released convicts. 

There are now several charitable institutions that are 
entirely under the direction of Japanese Christians. Rev. 
J. H. Pettee, D.D., prepared, in 1897, a list of Christian 
charities from which the following summary of what is 
done in connection with Protestant missions and Churches 
is drawn : 

58 Day and Night Schools for the poor, with 2,963 
scholars. 

19 Orphan Asylums, with 719 inmates. 

14 Homes for various classes, with 2%y inmates. 

16 Hospitals and Dispensaries. 

The orphan asylums have especially appealed to the 
charitable sentiments of the people. The kind of children 
who find in them a home will be illustrated by the follow- 
ing account of the inmates in one of the smaller asylums : 
" Five were sold or about to be when we took them ; eight 
cast off to become waifs or beggars ; six had respectable 
widowed mothers unable to support their families; one 
of the three foundlings was out in the fields several days 
before found, and one all but murdered by its mother; 
five of our children had been beggars, one being born 
a beggar. Of the twenty-seven, nine have begged more 
or less. Three are eta. Suicides, murders, whole families 
in prison much of the time, runaway parents, and sisters 
sold to a life of shame, are items in their family his- 
tories." 

The influence of these institutions is felt by others, and 
the Buddhists have been led to imitate them. Thus many 
who are in need of help may indirectly receive the fruits 
of Christianity. The sufferers are many, and we cannot 
but hope that the example set by the Christians will incite 
others to deeds of charity. 

Though there are thousands of lepers in the country, 
the only asylums for them, so far as known, are one 
Roman Catholic and two Protestant institutions ; the only 
work for the blind is in two government schools and 
two Protestant asylums, both of them small, while ap- 



120 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

paren'tly nothing is done for the idiotic and but little for 
the insane. 

7. Reforms. — Among the results accomplished by 
Christianity must be counted the inauguration of many 
movements in the interest of social reform. Temperance 
societies established by Christians have many unbelievers 
among their members. 

A few years ago the Christians of several prefectures 
commenced agitations in favor of doing away with the 
system of licensed prostitution. Unfortunately, in most 
places little was accomplished; but in one prefecture, 
where several Christians were members of the provincial 
assembly, a great victory was won. After a few years 
the coming of a new governor was made the occasion 
for an attempt to restore the system, arid large sums of 
money were expended by those who hoped to profit by the 
evil business. Those who opposed this looked to the 
Christians for leadership, and did not look in vain. There 
was a long and hard battle, which at last resulted in the 
defeat of those who tried to bring back the licensing sys- 
tem. 

Some of the Christians are taking an interest in the so- 
cial problems that grow out of the modern manufacturing 
system, and we may believe that, as the questions take 
more definite shape, the churches will furnish those who 
will be leaders in seeking wise ways of overcoming or 
preventing the evils that threaten the poor. 

8. Only a Beginning Has Been Made. — If some make 
the mistake of supposing that almost nothing has been 
accomplished, others may err in the opposite direction and 
get an idea that the victory is almost won. Such persons 
hardly appreciate what it means to lead a nation of forty- 
two million people to new beliefs and practices so different 
from the old. The leaven has indeed been placed in the 
meal, but it will be long before the whole lump is leavened. 
Perhaps the rapid progress of fifteen years ago excited 
too high hopes. The slower movement of recent years 
has caused disappointment, which was increased by the 
weakness of many churches and individuals who had 
seemed thoroughly established in Christian belief. It had 
been forgotten that they were yet but children in the 
faith, that it was easy for them to be led away by new^ 



PRESENT CONDITIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 121 

and striking theories, and that they had not yet gained 
such strength that it was easy to resist the temptations 
that surrounded them. Much remains to be done in Japan. 
There are multitudes who have not yet heard the name 
of Christ. The churches are few in number, the Chris- 
tians form but a Httle flocl<:, and they are surrounded by 
those who would lead them astray. 

II. The Present Religious Condition of Japan. — 
I. The. Weakening of the Old Religions. — As Japan has 
passed through great changes affecting all other depart- 
ments of human life and thought, the religious beliefs and > 
sentiments of the people could not remain unaffected. 
The old religions have been subjected to a great strain 
and have failed to satisfy those who were receiving new^ \ 
ideas from the West. Young people taught the truths 
of science cannot, as their parents did, bow their heads 
and worship the rising sun ; they cannot go into the 
Buddhist temples, kneel before images made of wood or 
stone, and from their hearts repeat the Buddhist prayers. 
The forms may at times be preserved, but the reality 
has gone. Hence multitudes of the young men speak of 
themselves as having no religion. 

As has already been said, Confucianism is being neg- 
lected and Shintoism considered as something else than 
a religion. Many Buddhists regard the outlook as very 
gloomy. In 1896 one of their leading journals said: 
" Buddhism is holding its own to-day by the mere force 
of inertia. By force of custom the older and middle-aged 
people of the present day are still sustaining the old 
religion, though the faith of even these is gradually grow- 
ing cold. But what will come to pass when society falls 
into the hands of those born in the Meiji Era [the era 
that commenced in 1868] ? . . . Within ten years 
Buddhism will fail in all its endeavors." In 1897 another 
Buddhist journal said, " Buddhism is dead. There is 
no advantage in concealing the fact ; " and still another 
asserted, " AH that remains of Buddhism is its literature." 
It would be easy to multiply similar quotations. The 
expressions may be stronger than the facts justify, but 
they show the despondent feeling that prevails, and there 
is at least a foundation of truth for their desCriptibh of 
the situation. 



122 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

2. Statistics of Students. — A Buddhist magazine re- 
cently took the rehgious statistics of students in three of 
the higher institutions of learning. In one school the 
average age of the pupils was nineteen and a half years, 
in another twenty-one and three-fourths years, and in the 
third twenty-three years. Of the students, 409 gave their 
religions as follows : 

Confucianist i Atheists 60 

Shintoist i Agnostics 282 

Buddhists 15 Non-committal 46 

Christians 4 

It will be seen that only seventeen declared their belief 
in any of the old religions of Japan. , Surely, this cannot 
be a cause of rejoicing so long as nothing better takes 
their place. 

3. Seeking a Religion. — Japan might be described as 
a nation in search of a religion. Though young men may 
be satisfied for awhile with agnosticism, the people as 
a whole cannot be. Thoughtful men are recognizing that 
irreligion tends to moral degeneracy. Whatever may 
have been the defects of the old religions, they had some 
influence in restraining the evil passions of men, and the 
loss of faith is being followed by evil consequences that 
are too apparent to all observers. Hence many writers 
for the periodical press are declaring that the great need 
of the country is religion. They may have little thought 
of religious faith as something that they themselves ought 
to possess, but they recognize how their country is suffer- 
ing from the present tendency. Some would attempt a 
revival of Shintoism, others advocate eclecticism, and 
there are many who would like to take a hand in manu- 
facturing something that they would call religion. Among 
the people at large there is, in a way, something of this 
same search for a religion, and hence has come the sud- 
den popularity of Tenrikyo and other minor sects. 

III. America's Responsibility. — Japan was for a long 
time a hermit nation. She did not wish to have any 
intercourse with Western lands. America sent out its 
Expedition to call forth Japan from its long seclusion. 
She held back; but we dragged her forth, unwilling as 



PRESENT CONDITIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 1 23 

she was, into a life that was new and strange. We have 
been the means of bringing her many blessings. We have 
also brought her face to face with many problems and 
many perils. In all the political, commercial, and edu- 
cational progress she has made we have rejoiced. If this 
is all, however, we cannot be satisfied. We would see her 
enjoying the blessings of a pure religion, and since the 
old faiths have been shaken because of what America did, 
American Christians should feel a special responsibility 
to see that something better takes their place. The agnos- 
ticism and atheism of the young men of Japan have been 
largely the result of the undermining of old beliefs by 
what they have learned in the schools. The educational 
system of Japan was largely modelled upon that of Massa- 
chusetts, so that, as we look upon the statistics that were 
given of the religious beliefs of students, we must again 
feel that America is largely responsible for the prevailing 
irreligion. We who have done the destructive work are 
guilty unless we see to it that the constructive work is 
not neglected. 

IV. Present Circumstances that Favor Missionary 
Effort. — The year 1899 marks a new point in the history 
of Japan. In July the country becomes open to foreigners 
as it has not been before. It will no longer be necessary 
for the missionary to obtain a special passport in order to 
travel in the interior, and he can reside wherever he 
pleases. The old restrictions that at one time hampered 
his work will be removed. At the same time the extension 
of railroads has made it easy to get from one part of the 
country to another. The Church ought to make the most 
of these improved conditions, especially if, as there seems 
much reason to hope, the reactionary movement of the 
last decade has nearly expended its force. No one can 
foretell what changes may come over the sentiments of 
the people ; but whether they become eager inquirers after 
the truth or are indifferent to it, the duty of the Church 
is to labor earnestly and persistently for the complete 
evangelization of the land. 

V. Japan's Influence upon Asia — Success or failure 
will not be confined to Japan. It is no longer a secluded 
nation. What is done there affects other countries, and 
especially those of Eastern Asia. The Japanese sometimes 



124 JAPAN AND ITS REGENERATION 

compare their country to the rudder of a ship; though 
the rudder is small, it directs the course of the whole 
vessel. The figure is not wholly unreasonable. The influ- 
ence of Japan upon the nations of the continent is becom- 
ing more and more marked. Unless all the signs are 
deceptive, much of the world's history during the next 
century will centre about Eastern Asia. Great political, 
social, and religious changes are at hand. If Japan should 
be given over to materialism and infidelity, the Church 
will have lost a powerful ally and will have its difficulties 
increased. If Japan should speedily become a Christian 
nation, Korea, Siam, and the vast empire of China would 
be profoundly influenced by the event itself, while the 
Japanese Christians, imbued with a missionary spirit, 
would join the Churches of the West in hastening forward 
to bring about the redemption of Asia. 



The Final Outcome 



My word . . . shall not return unto Me void, hut 
it shall accomplish that zvhich I please, and it shall pros- 
per in the thing zvhereto I sent it. 

He is faithful that promised. 

I beheld, and, lo, a great multitude, zvhich no man could 
number, of all nations, and kindreds, and people, and 
tongues, stood before the throne, and before the Lamb, 
clothed zvith zvhite robes, and palms in their hands; and 
cried zinth a loud voice, saying'. Salvation to our God 
zvhich sitteth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb. 



APPENDIX A 



Formosa. — Although it has not seemed advisable to 
treat of Formosa in the body of the text-book, a few 
words about this recent addition to the Empire of Japan 
may here find a place. 

The name Formosa is a Portuguese word meaning 
" Beautiful." By the Chinese and Japanese it is called 
Taiwan (" Terraced Harbor "). The island itself is sep- 
arated from China by the Formosa Channel, which, in 
its narrowest place, has a breadth of eighty miles. It is 
250 miles long and has an average breadth of fifty miles. 
The Tropic of Cancer passes through it near the centre. 
The interior of the island is occupied by high mountain 
ranges extending north and south. On the western side 
there are plains between the sea and the mountains ; the 
eastern side is more precipitous. The climate is very 
damp and trying to foreigners. Malarial fever abounds. 
As in Japan, there are frequent earthquakes and typhoons. 

The Portuguese settled there in 1590. They were fol- 
lowed by the Dutch and Spaniards, who quarrelled for 
its possession. The Dutch, who drove out the Spaniards, 
were in their turn expelled by Chinese pirates. In 1683 
Formosa was made a part of the Chinese Empire. The 
aborigines were of Malay origin. Though many of them 
submitted to the Chinese and adopted their civilization, 
the mountain tribes have never yielded, but retain their 
savage habits. They are head-hunters, desiring to gain 
the heads of their enemies as ornaments for their huts. 
They lie in wait for the Chinese and also for members 
of those tribes that have yielded to the Chinese. 

When some of these savages attacked sailors from 
Japan, that country demanded that they be punished by 
the Chinese Government; and, since the latter did noth- 
ing, Japan, in 1874, sent an expedition which invaded 

125 



126 APPENDIX A 

the eastern part of the island, but withdrew when China 
at last came to terms. In 1895, as one result of the war 
between China and Japan, Formosa was ceded to the 
latter country, which is now engaged in the difficult task 
of tranquillizing and developing the island. 

Missionary zvork in the southern part of Formosa was 
begun in 1865 by the Presbyterian Church of England, 
and in 1872 the Presbyterian Church of Canada estab- 
lished a mission in the northern part of the island. Among 
the Japanese who have gone to Formosa since its annexa- 
tion are Christians, who have to some extent joined forces 
with the believers that they found in the island. Some 
evangelists have been sent from Japan, with the hope that 
they may find opportunities to labor, not only among the 
new immigrants, but also among the native Formosans. 

The Canadian Presbyterians, under the energetic lead- 
ership of Dr. Mackay, have done a remarkable and very 
thrilling work. Though only two missionaries with their 
wives are in charge, they and their native force of seventy- 
six assistants have worked out from their one station 
through fifty-six out-stations, until 1,623 communicants 
have been won. Their six day-schools contain 135 pupils, 
and Oxford College is now training twenty-four students 
for Christian usefulness. Last year their one hospital 
ministered to the physical ills of 6,411 patients. 

The English Presbyterians, who had been on the Island 
seven years when Dr. Mackay arrived, have naturally 
accomplished, with their foreign force of seven men and 
an equal number of women, an even larger work. They 
occupy two stations and fifty-one out-stations; employ 
fifty-one assistants ; educate in their two colleges sixty- 
one students ; have two hospitals which last year received 
4,500 patients; and in their churches are 1,587 communi- 
cants. Few fields of such a character have been more 
fruitful than Formosa. 



APPENDIX B 

A Select Bibliography. — So many books have been 
written upon Japan that their mere names would fill a 
good-sized volume. The following list is intended to 
give only such works as are likely to prove most useful 
to those for whom the present text-book is intended. 



Griffis, W. E.: The Mikado's Empire. (1896.) 

Though this book was published more than twenty years ago, there 
is perhaps no other so well fitted for the use of the general reader who 
wishes a single book that covers nearly all points connected with the 
subject. By adding supplementary chapters to later editions, the 
author has kept the book up to the times. 

Griffis, W. E.: Japan, in its History, Folk-lore, and Art. (1894.) 
A small volume, written for young people. 

Rein, J. J.: Japan. (1884-88.) 

Rein, J. J.: The Industries of Japan. (1889.) 

These two books by Dr. Rein, though not written in an interesting 
style, are packed full of information such as cannot readily be found 
elsewhere. 

Chamberlain, B. H.: Things Japanese. (1891.) 

A dictionary full of information, written in an interesting style, an- 
swering the many miscellaneous questions that are constantly being 
asked, and giving references to other books where more detailed state- 
ments can be found. 

Murray, D.: The Story of Japan. (In "Stories of the Nations " series, 
1894.) 

Hawkes, F. L.: Narrative of the Expedition under Commodore M. C. 
Perry. (1856.) 
This work, in three volumes, published by the United States Govern- 
ment, gives an account of Commodore Perry's Expedition and also 
several scientific papers. There is an abridgment in one volume. 

Adams, F. O.: The History of Japan— to 1 87 1. 2 vols. (1875.) 

Black, J. R.: Young Japan, 1858-79. 2 vols. (1880-81.) 

Norman, H.: The Real Japan. (1895.) 

127 



128 APPENDIX B 



Murray's Handbook for Travellers in Japan. (Ed. 1896.) 

Indispensable for travellers, and containing much general information. 

Shigemi, S.: a Japanese Boy. (1890.) 
Describes home life, etc. 

Bacon, A. M.: Japanese Girls and Women. (1891.) 

Tamura, N.: The Japanese Bride. (1893.) 

Miss Bacon's book pictures chiefly the brighter side of woman's 
life ; Mr. Tamura gives glimpses of the other side. 

Aston, W, G.: A History of Japanese Literature. (1899.) 

MiTFORD, A. B. F.: Tales of Old Japan. (1890.) 

These old stories throw much light on ancient life and customs. 

HuisH, M. B.: Japan and its Art. (1888.) 

In large libraries expensive books on Japanese art, adorned with 
magnificent plates, can be found ; but this little book has been pro- 
nounced by competent judges to be one of the best upon the subject. 

Hearn, L.: Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan. 2 vols. (1894.) 

Hearn, L.: Kokoro. (1896.) 

Hearn, L.: OutoftheEast (1895.) 

Hearn, L.; Gleanings in Buddha Fields. (1897.) 

Mr. Hearn embraces every opportunity to say unpleasant things 
about missions and Christianity. He praises Buddhism and Japan in 
extravagant terms. His essays suggest subjects for study, though his 
descriptions are one-sided and his conclusions need to be closely scru- 
tinized before acceptance by others. 

Bird, I. L.: Unbeaten Tracks in Japan. 2 vols. (1881.) 

Tristram, H. B.: Rambles in Japan. (1895.) 

BiCKERSTETH, M.: Japan as We Saw It. (1893.) 

The last three books, selected from many accounts written by travel- 
lers, show the impressions made upon those who visit the country for a 
limited time. The writers are in sympathy with missions and tell 
something of what they saw of their work. 

Griffis, W. E.: The Religions of Japan. (1895.) 

Atkinson, J. L.: Prince Siddartha. (1893.) 

This gives the story of the founder of Buddhism as it is told in Japan. 

Casartellt: The Catholic Church in Japan. (1897.) 

This little pamphlet, published for twopence in London by the 
Catholic Truth Society, gives a succinct account of the work of three 
centuries ago as well as of that in modern times. 

Coleridge, H. T.: Life and Letters of St. Francis Xavier. 2 vols. 
(1872-73-) 

RiTTER, H.: A History of Protestant Missions in Japan. (1898.) 
This invaluable book of reference brings together such accounts ot 
the work of different missions as could uot easily be found elsewhere. 



APPENDIX B 129 

f>EERY, R. B.: The Gist of Japan. (1897.) 

Gordon, M. L.: An American Missionary in Japafl. (1893.) 

These last two works supplement each other. Though to some ex- 
tent covering the same ground, the former treats chiefly of Japan as a 
mission field and considers various problems connected with the work ; 
while the latter describes the every-day experiences of the missionary 
and relates many incidents connected with missionaries and native 
Christians. 

Hardy, A. S.: The Life of Joseph Neesima. (1891.) 

Davis, J, D.: A Maker of New Japan. (1894. j 

Both of these books are biographies ol Dr. Neesima. The former 
gives the fuller account of various events in the life of its subject ; 
while the latter tells more of his religious life and work. 

UCHIMURA, K.: The Diary of a Japanese Convert. (1895.) 

Batchelor, J.: The Ainu of Japan. (1892.) 

No other man knows so much about the Ainu as this missionary 
who has lived among them and zealously labored for their welfare. 

Campbell, W. : Missionary Success in Formosa. (1889.) 

MacKay, G. L.: From Far Formosa. (1895.) 

Those who have access to large libraries will find in the Transactions 
of the Asiatic Society of Japan, and in those of the Japan Society (Lon- 
don), mines of information upon various points. 

9 



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ANALYTICAL INDEX 

Besides indicating the location of important topics, this Index is also 
intended for use in preparing the various studies. Having read over its 
analytical outline before taking up each chapter, the student sees exactly 
what ground is covered by the section to be mastered. So, too, after 
having studied the chapter, its outline can again be used in lieu of 
questions put by a teacher, thus enabling the student to see what topics 
have been forgotten. The numerals following each topic and sub-topic 
refer to the pages where they may be found. 

CHAPTER I 

THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN - 

[Study I.] 

I. The name, i. 
II. Situation, i, 2. 

1. Islands included, i. 

2. Latitudes and longitudes compared, i, 2. 

3. Distance from Asia, 2. 

III. Area, 2. 

1. Compared with known areas, 2. 

2. Comparative statement of different sections of the empire, 2. 

3. Hondo, 2. 

IV. Physical features, 2-4. 

1. Mountains, 2, 3. 

(i) Mt. Fuji, 2, 3. (2) Volcanoes, 3. 

2. Rivers, 3. 

(i) Bridge problem, 3. (2) Embankments, 3. 

3. Lakes, 3, 4. 

(i) Their beauty, 3, 4. (2) Lake Biwa, 4. 

4. The coast-line, 4. 
V. Climate, 4, 5. 

1. Temperature, 4. 

2. Dampness, 4, 5. 

3. Lack of ozone, 5. 

4. High winds, 5, 

5. Effect on health, 5. 
VI. Seismic disturbances, 6. 

VII. Productions, 6-10. 

1. Minerals, 6. 

2. Agricultural wealth, 6-8. 

(i) System of irrigation, 6, 7. (2) Rice culture, 7. (3) Droughts, 7. (4) 
Vegetables, 7. (5) Silk and tea, 7. (6) Fruits, 8. 

3. Trees and Flowers, 8, 9. 

(1) Timber trees, 8. (2) Blossoms and flowers, 8. (3) The bamboo, 8, 9. 

4. Animals, 9. 

(i) Fox and badger possession, 9. (2) Domestic animals, 9. 

5. Birds, 9, 10. 

6. Marine products, 10. 

7. Insects, 10. 

(i) A delight to the eye, 10. (2) Others a source of discomfort, 10. 
Vni. Population and gradations in society, 10, 11. 
IX. Important cities, 11-16. 
I. Kyoto, II, 12, 

(i) Described, 11. (2) Its fortunes since 1868, ii, 12. (3) Its religious life, 12. 

132 



AJSTALYTICAL INDEX 133 

2i Tokyo, 12, 13. 

(i) Its founder, 12. (2) Description, 12, 13. (3) Japan's educational cen- 
tre, 13. 
3j, Yokohama, 13. 

(i) Its growth, 13. (2) European section^ 13. 

4. Osaka, 13, 14. 

(i) Its appearance, 13, 14. (2) Industrial and social interest, 14s 

5. Kobe, 14, 15. 

6. Nagasaki, 15. 

7. Hakodate, 15. 

8. Niigata. " Open ports,*' 15, 16. 

9. Other cities, i6. 

(i) Sapporo, 16. (2) Sendai, 16. (3) Nikko, 16. (4) Nigoya, 16. (5) 
" Castle-towns " and their relation to missions, i6. 
X. Means of communication, 16-18. 

1. Steamers, saihng vessels, and boats, 16, 17. 

2. Railroads, 17. 

3. Other methods of travel, 17. 

(i) The kago, 17. (2) Jinrikishas, 17. 

4. Posts and telegraphs, 17, i8. 

CHAPTER II 

THE PEOPLE OF JAPAN 

[Study II.] 

1. The origin of the Japanese, 19. 

1. Two types, 19. 

2. Two streams of immigrations, 19. 
II, The Ainu, 19, 20. 

III. Possible relation between the Japanese and the American Indians, 20. 

IV. Physical characteristics of the Japanese, 20, 21. 
V. Mental characteristics, 21-25 

1. Intelligence, 21. 

2. Cheerfulness, 21. 

3. Inventive power, 21. 

4. Lack of steadfastness of purpose, 21, 22. 

5. Changeableness, 22. 

6. "Greatness in little things, Httleness in great things," 22, 23. 

7. Appreciation of beauty, 23. 

8. Hero-worship, 23. 

9. Sentimental temperament, 23, 2^. 

10. Dull sense of individual responsibility, 24. 

11. Comparison with the Chinese, 24, 25. 
VI. Japanese standards of morality, 25-31. 

1. Ideas concerning loyalty and patriotism, 25, c5. 

2. Ideas concerning filial piety, 26-28. 

(i) Family honor, 26, 27. (2) Necessity for family continuity, 27. (3) Evils 
due to such views, 27, 28. 

3. Ideas concerning propriety and etiquette, 28. 

4. Ideas concerning truthfulness, 28, 29. 

5. Ideas concerning honesty, 29. 

6. Ideas concerning temperance, 29, 30. 

(i) Sakd drinking, 29, 30. (2) Tobacco, 30. 

7. Ideas concerning chastity, 30, 31. 

(i) Lacking largely, 30. (2) Improvement, 30, 31. 
VII. The position of woman, 31, 32. 

1, High in comparison with other Orientals, 31, 

2. As described in " The Great Learning for Women," 31, 32. 

3, Divorce and reasons therefor, 32. 

4. Influence of Western ideas, 32. 
VIII. Classes of society, 32, 33. 

1. The different classes described, 32, 33. 

2. The daimyos and samurai, 33. 
IX. The language, 33, 34. 

1. Dependence of Japanese on Chinese characters, 33, 34. 

2. These idiographs a great burden, 34. 

3. Solution of the difficulty, 34. 



134 ANALYTICAL INDEX 



CHAPTER III 

TAPAN I.N FAST TIMES 

[Stl-dy III.] 

I. Alleged antiquity of the Imperial dynasty, 35. 

1. Japanese \-iews, 35. 

2. Foreign beliefs, 35. 
II. Ancient literature, .::.5, 36. 

1. Early works, 35, 36. 

2. Authority* for later history, 36. 

III. Early traditions, 36, 37. 

1. The earliest ones, 36. 

2. Later traditions, 36, 37. 

IV. Historical events, 37-39. 

1. Important changes, 37. 

2. Rise of the feudal s}-stem, 37, 38. 

3. Rise of the Shogunate, 3S. 

4. Noted militar)- rulers, 3;. 

CHAPTER IV 

RELIGIONS OF JAP.AJN 

J. Shintolsm, 40-^4. 

1. Meaning of the name, 40. 

2. General description, 40. 

3. Mytholog\-, 40, 41. 

(i)" Izanagi and Izanami, 40, 41. (2) Sun-goddess and Emperor, 41. 

4. Objects of v.-orship, 41, 42. 

(i) Mentioned, 40. ,2; Their worship, 41, 42. 

5. " The Re%-ival of Pure Shinto," 42. 

6. Shinto shrines, 42, 43. 

(i) Shinto architecture, 42, 43. (2) Mirror and gohei, 43. 

7. Priests and worshippers, 43, 44. 

8. Is Shintoism a reli^'i^n? 44. 

(i) View of the educated, 44. (2) Of the masses, 44. 
II. Buddhism, 44-4S. 

1. Introduction into Japan, 44. 

2. Doctrines, 44, 45. 

(i) Differences, 44, 45. (2) Some common views, 45. 

3. The Shin sect, 45, 46. 

(ij BeUefs common to other sects, 45. (2) Shin-shu way of salvation, 46. 
(3) Three points of behef, 46. 

4. Buddhist temples, 46, 47. 

5. Buddhist priests, 47, 48. 

6. persecution bv Buddhists, 48. 

(1) Of other sects, 48. (2j Of Christians, 48. 

III. Confucianism, 48, 49. 

IV. Other religious systems, 49, 50. 

1. Kurozumi, 49, 50. 

(i) His experience, 49. (2) Sect characteristics, 49, 50. 

2. Tenrikj'o, 50. 

(1) Origin and character, 50. (2) Its propagation, 50. 

CHAPTER V 

JESLIT MISSIONS 
[STt-DY IV.] 

I. Europeans become acquainted with Japan, 51. 
II. The missionaries, 51-53. 

1. Xa\-ier, 51, -2. 

(i) Reason for entering Japan, 51, 52. (2) His work there, 52. 

2. Xa^•ier's successors, 52, 53. 

III. Conditions that aided the Jesuits, 53, 54. 

1. Religious, 53. 

2. PoUtical, II. 54. 

IV. Persecution of the Christians, 54-57. 
1. By Hideyoshi, 54. 



ANAL YTICA L INDEX 13 5 

2. By leyasu, 54, 55. 

(1) Its rise, 54, 53. (2) Sufferings of the martyrs, 55. 

3. Revolt of the Christians, 55, 56. 

4. Christianity not wholly destroyed. 56, 57. 

(i) Dr. Griffis's statement, 56. (2) Christianity not stamped out, 56, 57. 

CHAPTER VI 

THE LOCKING AND THE UNLOCKING 

I. A closed nation, 58, 59. 

1. Results of foreign intercourse, 58. 

2. The doors closed, 58. 

3. The Dutch merchants, 58, 59. 

(i) Their limitations, 58, 59. (2) Why allowed to remain, 59. 
II. Attempts to open Japan, 59, 60. 

1. Various efforts, 59. 

2. Return of wrecked sailors, 59, 60. 
III. The opening, 60-62. 

1. The American Expedition, 60. 

(i) Perry's first visit, 60. (2) American treaty, 60. 

2. Treaties with European nations, 60, 61. 

3. The treaties of 1858, 61. 

4. Attacks upon foreigners, 61. 

5. Bombardment of Kagoshima and Shimonoseki, 61, 62. 

6. The Emperor ratifies the treaties, 62. 

CHAPTER VII 

THE REVOLUTION 

I. What it was, 63. 
II. Its progress, 63-66. 

1. Preparatory agitation, 63, 64. 

2. Effect of the foreign treaties, 64. 

3. Resignation of the Shogun, 64, 65. 

4. The Emperor's oath, 65. 

5. Transfer of the capital, 65. 

6. The end of feudalism, 65, 66. 

(1) Noble action of the daimyos, 65, 66. (2) Later fortunes of daimyos and 
their retainers, 66. 

CHAPTER VIII 

NEW JAPAN 

[Study V.] 

I. Changed attitude toward Western civilization, 67, 68. 

1. Employment of foreign instructors, 67. 

2. Changes introduced, 67, 68, 

(1) Material changes, 67. (2) Moral reforms, 67, 68. 

3. An embassy sent to the West, 68. 
II. Later changes, 68-71. 

1. PoHtical changes, 68, 69. 

(1) Transition period, 68. (2) Movement of 1877, 69. (3) Reorganization 
of 1885, 6g. (4) Events of 1889, 1890, and 1898, 69. 

2. Educational, material, and social changes ; reaction, 69-71. 
III. The Satsuma Rebellion, 71, 72. ~~ '"" 

1. Satsuma, 71. 

2. Disaffection of the Satsuma men, 71, 72. 

3. The rebellion, 72. 
IV. War with China, 73. 

1. The war, 73. 

2. Some of its results, 73. 

V. Revision of the treaties, 73, 74. 
I. The discussion, 73, 74. 
?. Action of the United States and Great Britain, 74. 



136 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



CHAPTER IX 

MODERN MISSIONS 

I. Interest concerning Japan before its opening, 75-78. 

A. Among Roman Catholics, 75, 76. 

1. Ecclesiastical appointments, 75. 

2. Sidotti, 75, 76. 

3. Missionaries in Loochoo, 76. 

B. Among Protestants, 76-78. 

1. Contributions for work in Japan, 76, 77. 

2. Dr. Bettelheim in Loochoo, 77. 

3. Translation of the Scriptures, 77. 

4. The American Expedition, 77, 78. 
II. Missionary work, 78-98. 

A. Roman Catholic missions, 79-82. 

1. The first missionaries, 7^. 

2. The discover}- of Christians, 79, 80. 

3. Persecutions. 80, 81. 

(i) Their extent, 80, 81. (2) Consequent protests, 81. 

4. Later history', 81, 82. 

(i) Methods of work, 81, 82. (2) Statistics, 82. 

B. The Russo-Greek mission, 82, 83. 

1. Bishop Nicolai, 82. 

2. Russian work ; attitude toward Protestants, 82, 83. 
[Study VI.] 

C. Protestant missions, 83-98. 

1. The first missionaries, 83. 

2. Difficulties of the early years, 83, 84. 

3. Opportunities for usefulness, 84. 

4. A call for prayer, 85. 

5. The laws against Christianity, 85. 

6. Persecutions. 85, 86. 

7. Removal of the edicts against Christianity, 86. 

8. Increasing toleration, 86, 87. 

(i) Beginnings, 86. (2) Notifications of 1884, 87, 

9. Christian teachers, 87-89. 

(i) E. W. Clark's experiences, 87. 88. (2) Teacher at Kumamoto, 88, 
89. (3) President Clark's stand, 89. 

10. The first converts, 8g, 90. 

(i) Yano Riyu, 89. (2) The Wakasa brothers and their relatives, 89, 90. 
(3) Other early converts, 90. 

11. The first church and its constitution, go. 

12. Results to the end of 1872, 90, 91. 

13. The period of popularity, 91, 92. 

(i) Mori Annori's "Religious Charter," 91. (2) Later favoring influ- 
ences, 91, 92. 

14. Opposition of the Buddhists, 92, 93. 

(i) Early methods, 92. (2) Opposition by imitation, 92, 93. 

15. The reaction, 93. 

16. Doctrinal discussions, 93, 94. 

(i) Agitation within Japan, 93, 94. (2) Part taken by Japanese students 
educated abroad. 94. 

17. The commercial spirit, 94. 

18. Interference with religious liberty, 94-96. 

(i) In the army, 94, 95. (2) In the lower schools, 95. (3) In the higher 
schools, 95. 96. 

19. The Rescript on Education, 96. 

20. Charges against the loyalty of Christians, 97. 

21. Progress during the time of reaction, 97, 98. 

CHAPTER X 

METHODS OF WORK 

[Study VII.] 

I. Study of the language, 99-101. 
1. Its necessity, 99, loo. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 1 37 

2. Methods of study, loo, loi. 

(i) 1 eachers, loo. (2) Indiscriminate conversation, 100. (3) A safe course, 
100, lOI. 

3. Not lost time, loi. 

II. Direct evangelistic effort, 101-106. 

1. Sunday-schools, 102. 

2. Preaching, 102, 103. 

(i) Chapels, 102, 103. (2) Exchanges and '" great-preaching-meetings," 103. 

3. Itinerating, 103-105. 

(i) The invitation, 103. (2) Missionary's reception, 103, 104. (3) The ser- 
vice, 104. (4) Hotel life and work, 105. (5) Visiting out-stations, T05. 

4. Work with individuals, 105. 

5. The work of missionary women, 106. 

III. Educational work, 106-108. 

1. Theological training, 106, 107. 

(i) In seminaries, 106, 107. (2) Bible women's schools, 107. 

2. Schools of academic grade, 107. 

3. Schools for girls, 108. 

4. Kindergartens, 108. 

5. Private classes, loS. 

IV. Literary work, 109. no. 

1. 'i'ranslation of the Scriptures, 109. 

2. Other books, 109, no. 

(i) Early work, 109, no. (2) Present needs, no. 
V. Medical work, no, in. 

1. A pioneer, no. 

2. Methods and results, no, in, 

3. Training of nurses, in. 
VI. Miscellaneous work, in, 112. 

VII. The missionaries' relation to the Japanese churches, 112. 

1. Different polities and resulting relations, 112. 

2. Different views as to self-support, 112. 

CHAPTER XI 

PRESENT CONDITIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 

[Study VIII.] 

I. What has been accomplished, 113-121. 

1. The gathering of the forces, 113, 114. 

(i) Statistics for 1898, 113. (2) Are more missionaries needed? 113, 114. 

2. Relations between different missions, 114, 115. 

(1) Evils of many societies exaggerated, 114. (2) Evidences of unity of 
various Christian bodies, 114, 115. 
« 3. Assertions that missions accomplish little, 115, 116. 

(1) Sources of such assertions, 115. (2) Some specific cases, 115, 116. 

4. Converts, 116, 117. 

(i) Converts not rice-Christians, 116. (2) Some conspicuous examples, 117. 
(3) What is not claimed, 117. 

5. Successful work among the Ainu, 117. 

6. Philanthropy, 1 18-120. 

(i) Work of Mr. Ishii and Mr. Hara, 118, 119. (2) Statistics of philanthropy, 
119. (3) Orphan asylums, 119. (4) Other philanthropies, 119, 120. 

7. Reforms, 120. 

(i) Temperance, 120. (2) Licensed prostitution, 120. (3) Problems of 
manufacturing system, 120. 

8. Only a beginning has been made, 120, 121. 

II. The present religious condition of Japan, 121, 122. 

1. The weakening of the old religions, 121. 

(i) Condition of educated youth, 121. (2) Status of old religions, 121. 

2. Statistics of student beliefs, 121, 122. 

3. Seeking a religion, 122. 

III. America's responsibility, 122, 123. 

IV. Present circumstances that favor missionary effort, 123. 
V. Japan's influence upon Asia, 123, 124. 

The Final Outcome^ 124. 



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INDEX TO PROTESTANT 




FORMOSA 






J.JN 231899 



